Applied Organizational Communication

Theory and Practice in a Global Environment

Thomas E. Harris, Mark D. Nelson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781351019569
• Edition: 4
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Communication Studies
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

The fourth edition of Applied Organizational Communication provides a current, in-depth analysis of the theories and practices critical to understanding organizational communication concepts in a global environment.

This new edition has been thoroughly updated and revised to reflect the most current organizational communication theory and research, and includes new information on the use of technology, incorporated throughout. Additional features of this text include:

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• Extensive real-life examples that establish links between organizational communication and perceptions, theory, networks, and symbolic behaviour.
• Theory-based consulting approaches that enhance abilities to link issues with actions.
• Grounding in transactional communication and advanced systems approaches.
• Macro and micro analyses of key topics and issues.

As an accessible and practical examination of organizational communication, this text is intended for use in organizational communication, leadership, organizational development, and organizational intervention courses at the advanced undergraduate and graduate level.

1

Adopting a Perspective

Realities

Organizations permeate our adult lives, from providing careers to controlling our choices in goods and services. Even the smallest independent group of highly creative individuals must have some form of organization. This omnipresence in our post-baccalaureate careers means understanding organizations is synonymous with the pursuit of rewarding employment and achievement of our goals. Except for the unusual and most likely unemployable individual, the need to operate effectively with and within organizations is as real a skill and as much of an occupational necessity as knowing how to find a job or learn a vocation. In the past, it was not unusual for someone to stay in the same job their entire working career, but this is no longer the case. “According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, a worker in the U.S. today has an organizational life expectancy of just 3.5 years” (Wright, 2013). From a practical standpoint, we need a strong understanding of organizations as we navigate our career.

The Ever-Changing World of Organizational Communication

“Change is a ubiquitous phenomenon in organizations and communication plays a major role” (Tapscott, 2013). Although change has always existed, the speed, breadth, and impact of change is truly different as we travel through the new millennium. The Internet and globalization force innovation, requiring organizations to be more efficient while rewiring for creativity and growth. Three major forces in this ever-changing world are the digital organization, the velocity of change, and diversity. For clarity’s sake, each issue will be examined separately. In fact, they are interconnected and interdependent.

Digital Organizations

The digital workplace empowers employees and directs their efforts by building a community of interest, driving knowledge management, and collaborating in ways that make sense. The spread of information accessibility is altering communication patterns and changing the way we work. The cell phone is the most quickly adopted consumer technology in the history of the world, currently utilized by 95% of adults (Rainie, 2017). Cell phones and other mobile devices are omnipresent and have a significant impact in the workplace. Our work with a variety of organizations has allowed us to observe how enterprise technology is transforming the way business is being done. Rapid advances and increased reliance on technology continues to change work and employment (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016).

More employee training will be done online, replacing classes with “on-demand curriculum that people can tune in when it suits their schedules.” We can thank YouTube for changes transforming employee training and development (Rafter, 2016). Accenture, a global management consulting and professional services company, has “refigured learning and development to lean less on campus-based classes and more on on-demand, customized training” (Rafter, 2016).

The Internet overcomes physical borders and time zones. Social media moves the ownership of information from a few to almost anyone, and mobile devices permanently alter “business as usual.” However, digital tools do not guarantee productivity. Why? We tend to resist change. “In fact, while 90 percent of organizations anticipate their businesses will be disrupted by technology, only 11 percent feel like they’re ready to adapt to the digital age” (Roe, 2017). Organizations have moved from a reliance on linear activities – one step leads to the next step in defined terms and hierarchies – to working in teams that form and reform projects and ideas.

The world of old cultures is confronted by “a dynamic, ungoverned” even archaic world where “boundaries are porous, rules unclear, and where power is resilient and distributed” (Tapscott, 2015, p. 2). The digital workplace is a natural evolution of the workplace, encompassing all of the technologies that staff use to do their jobs. This can include intranets, e-mail, instant messaging, enterprise social media tools, and portals. Of course, the skills and abilities to utilize these techniques are the key to success. This holistic set of tools, environment, and platform must allow a usable, coherent, and productive output linked to employees’ experience and an empowering environment. In 2015, just over a third of the world’s population had an Internet connection of some kind. Predictions about the future conclude there will be a quickening spread of connectedness (Schmidt, 2015).

The demise of the traditional workplace, including routines, habits, and office hours, is under way. The digital workplace eliminates many communication barriers, allowing a focus on innovation, growth, and efficiency. We are moving from a physical space occupied during office hours to a connected environment where the whole workforce can communicate and collaborate in many new and effective ways. We can communicate faster and with more information. In addition, we have various choices for communicating. Our ability to take advantage of these effects depends on our capabilities to find, absorb, and store this information. The World Economic Forum estimates that by the year 2020,

more than a third of the desired core set of most occupations will be comprised of skills that are not yet considered crucial to the job today. Creativity and critical thinking, for example, will be required by more than a third of all jobs in 2020. Whereas physical strength will only be valued in one in twenty jobs.

(Luxton, 2016)

Connectivity brings greater attention to work-related issues. “Three quarters of employees polled said two to three hours a day are lost in productivity because of distractions such as texting, the internet, social medial and email along with more traditional time killers – visits from co-workers or office gossip” (Mirabella, 2016). But at the same time, connectivity is important for keeping in touch with colleagues. A recent Career Builder survey found that more than 80% of workers keep a smartphone in view throughout the workday, with two in three acknowledging that they use it several times while at work (Mirabella, 2016).

Artificial Intelligence A posterchild for the interdependence between digital technology and the velocity of change is artificial intelligence (AI). It is the “most important general-purpose technology of our era” (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2017). These systems replicate human learning based on empirical data: “The next generation of artificial intelligence promises to have an impact as big as the mobile revolution or the internet revolution before that” (Schmidt, 2015).

Technological innovations have been the fundamental drivers of economic growth. AI is when a machine mimics “cognitive” human successes such as “learning” and “problem solving.” Rapid advances have improved search engines and voice assistants, which are finding broader applications in health care and other fields. In 2011, a computer beat two human quizmasters on a Jeopardy challenge. This is only the beginning. The tech industry is training its machines to make them even better at amassing knowledge and answering questions.

Machine learning (ML) systems gather information from vast quantities of data and develop solutions. Machines have already beaten human poker and GO players. How? “The machine learns from examples, rather than being explicitly programmed for a particular outcome. Programming is limited to the knowledge we can program into a machine. We have trouble explaining processes since they are habits, intuitive or automatic” (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2017). In other words, we know more than we can tell, placing a fundamental restriction on our ability to endow machines with intelligence. Facebook employs machine learning systems when it uses facial recognition. “AI is already revolutionizing our lives. It can detect patterns that humans can neither see nor anticipate. English speakers can make phone or video contacts with speakers of Hindi or Chinese using ML” (Schmidt, 2015). Later in this chapter we will discuss transformational processes that machines do not currently do.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of Internet-connected objects able to collect and exchange messages between machines. Business Insider’s premium service expects there will be more than a billion IoT devices by the year 2020 (Meola, 2016). These include security cameras, DVRs, printers, cars, baby monitors, and refrigerators – even “smart” light bulbs and clothing.

The Augmented Workforce “As artificial intelligence (AI) systems, robotics, and cognitive tools grow in sophistication, almost every job is being reinvented” (What is an augmented, 2018). This paradigm shift means that “people skills” are increasingly important. These include empathy, communication, persuasion, personal service, problem-solving, and strategic management, which makes them more valuable than ever. “Robotic tools or robots, with enhanced senses, dexterity, and intelligence, can take on tasks once thought to be too delicate or uneconomical to automate” (Manyika et al., 2013). The benefits include robotic surgical systems that make procedures less invasive. So, tasks and jobs that follow standardized rules, set procedures, and logic, are easy adaptations for robots.

The Velocity of Change

Organizations are changing at a rate unforeseen only a few years ago. The question is no longer whether organizations want to change, but how quickly can they inaugurate effective changes (Heerwagen et al., 2016). Changes leading to significant transformations have become a way of life. Companies are deciding what type of work is primary to their goals and what can be outsourced. Specific needs can be moved to companies who specialize in the necessary skill sets. As organizations become more digital, they face a growing imperative to redesign themselves to move faster, adapt more quickly, learn rapidly, and embrace dynamic change demands (Global workplace trends report, 2017).

Continuous learning has become an integral part of post-college experiences by defining our future and impacting our success (Stafura, 2018). An undergraduate education is just the first step for many due to the quickly changing demands at the workplace (Liu, 2018). By 2020, 40% of U.S. workers will be part of the “contingent workforce” (Hill, 2015). Many contingent jobs have few or no benefits.

Smart devices have blurred the boundaries between work life and personal life (Wright, 2013). The ease of working at home or on the road can also make it difficult to escape work. For some, telecommuting, flexi time, and benefits offset the disadvantages of connectivity.

Change has not impacted all groups of workers equally. The average hourly wage of rank-and-file workers in 2018 – a group that makes up 80% of the workforce – was slightly lower than it was four years earlier, once inflation is taken into account (Craver, 2018). “By the year 2020, a high-tech, well-to-do group will monopolize more than 60% of the income earned in the United States” but this group will hardly comprise the majority of workers. As an overview, the United States is in the midst of a transition from an industrial society to a brain-driven, knowledge-based economy. More value will be placed on creative thinking and planning than on rote manufacturing. Freelancing, or the gig economy, is growing and this trend will grow and expand (Freelancing in America, 2014; Torpey & Hogan, 2016).

By any measure, having a strong back and a willingness to work will not serve to guarantee a financially rewarding future. There are 53 million Americans working as freelancers, comprising 34% of the U.S. workforce. Companies with fewer than 500 employees “account for half the nation’s economic output and 60 to 80% of all new jobs” (Impact of small businesses, 2018). Traditional full-time jobs with benefits are becoming less and less common.

Major organizations are combining to form international mega-companies. This absorption of one organization by another includes almost all types of business. In every field, large corporations are getting larger, reducing the potential for an upstart organization to enter a market. Globalization impacts various aspects of organizational life as organizations work with foreign subsidiaries, enter global markets, create international coalitions, and engage in multinational enterprises. The four dimensions of globalization are economic, political, cultural, and ecological. The economic dimension explains the intensification and strategic economic interrelations around the globe. Larger corporations often maintain foreign offices in more than 100 different countries. Most of us enjoy Colombian coffee; use Sony, Panasonic, or other Japanese equipment for entertainment; wear clothes sewn in an Asian country; or buy gas from BP (British Petroleum) or Shell (Dutch). Overseas, people recognize and enjoy Pepsi, Coca-Cola, Kentucky Fried Chicken, McDonald’s, and purchase numerous U.S.-based products. Globalization has reduced low-paying manufacturing jobs in the U.S. International trade does not impact all workers – only the low-skilled ones. This connectivity requires being culturally savvy. If we want to be future-proof, we need to know what’s happening in the world to enhance our intercultural transactions (Four ways globalization affects American workers, 2016).

Diversity

Diversity within and between organizations presents significant challenges and opportunities. “Businesses that embrace our nation’s changing demographics reap the economic benefits of a diverse and inclusive workforce” (Burns et al., 2012). Different skills, backgrounds, and expectations allow businesses to develop the type of creative and innovative solutions needed to succeed in an increasingly competitive economy. By 2025, millennials and Generation Zs will dominate the workforce (Global workplace trends report, 2017).

Ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, age, LBGTO, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies are examples of differences (Roberts, 2017). Depending on the circumstances, other distinctions will become important. The task for organizations is to determine which differences make a difference (Mannis & Neale, 2005). Not all differences play a role in task- and goal-oriented organizations. Margaret Mead, a famous cultural anthropologist, concluded: “Always remember that you are absolutely unique, just like everyone else.”

The entire make-up of the organizational world has been changing and this will continue with substantial increases in participation by traditional minorities and dramatic changes in demographics, multicultural backgrounds, and interests. The growth in female, African-American, Hispanic, and Asian workers means the end of the traditional dominance by white males (Bradley, 2017). There is a much greater likelihood that we will be working with individuals who are not from the groups or the tribes we traditionally associate with. Add to this the internationalization of many organizations and we are likely to be reporting to superiors, working with colleagues, and directing subordinates from different countries. This trend is unlikely to decrease because, nationally and internationally, companies promote diversity primarily because it makes good business sens...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Information
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1 Adopting a Perspective
• Chapter 2 Perception and Paradigms
• Chapter 3 Understanding Organizations: An Overview of Management and Organizational Perspectives
• Chapter 4 Verbal Communication
• Chapter 5 Nonverbal Communication
• Chapter 6 Networks and Channels
• Chapter 7 Symbolic Behavior
• Chapter 8 Listening
• Chapter 9 Effective Interpersonal Communication in Organizations
• Chapter 10 Small Group and Team Communication
• Chapter 11 Effective Leadership in Organizations
• References
• Index