Ergonomics

Foundational Principles, Applications, and Technologies

Pamela McCauley-Bush

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2011
• ISBN:
  9781439897843
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Tecnologia e ingegneria
• Subtopic: Ingegneria industriale

A complete introduction to the field, Ergonomics: Foundational Principles, Applications and Technologies discusses scientific principles, research, applications, and emerging trends in technology. Covering the foundational principles and major topics in physical ergonomics, the book contains the necessary components of a quality ergonomics course,

1 Foundational Ergonomics

1.1 LEARNING GOALS

This chapter will provide the student with a basic understanding of ergonomics, its definitions, and its applications. The student will also learn about the historical foundations of ergonomics by studying the individuals and organizations that led the early development of the field of ergonomics. Additionally, topics relevant to American ergonomic legislation and worldwide professional societies will be discussed.

1.2 KEY TOPICS

• Definition of ergonomics

• History of ergonomics

• Types of ergonomic problems

• Legislative and regulatory organizations impacting ergonomics

• Ergonomic societies and resources

1.3 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

“Ergonomics” is derived from the Greek words ergo (work) and nomos (laws) to denote the science of work. Ergonomics is a scientific discipline focused on comprehensively addressing the interaction of humans with all aspects of their environment. While ergonomics initially is focused on humans within the occupational setting, its wide purview and relevance to everyday human life has extended ergonomic application to cover other areas, including consumer product design, recreational environments, and processes.

The principles of ergonomics are not limited to traditional occupational environments such as offices or factories, but are broadly extended to address the needs of users’ environments including the service, health care, and recreational industries. The objective of the application of ergonomic principles to any environment is to design the environment to be compatible with the need of the human users. In other words, ergonomic applications are designed to “fit the task to the person.” This textbook is dedicated to teaching the physical ergonomic principles, tools, and techniques for the successful application of ergonomics in practice and research. The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) offers the following definition for ergonomics:

Ergon omics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. (IEA, 2009)

Frederick Taylor (1856–1915), often referred to as the “father of modern ergonomics,” was an early pioneer in the field of industrial engineering. During his lifetime, Taylor’s principles, often termed “scientific management” or “Taylorism,” were considered extremely useful (Taylor, 1911). However, today his methods are seen in a negative light, similar to Fordism and other related assembly-line forms of production. These connotations, however, have more to do with the working conditions at the time than Taylor’s studies. Having worked his way up from a machine shop laborer to the position of chief engineer, Taylor held the interests of the worker as highly as the interests of the owner, although his studies were often misused by owners to get the most work out of their employees for the lowest possible wages (Winkel and Westgaard, 1996).

Two of Taylor’s disciples in the early 1900s were Lillian and Frank Gilbreth. The Gilbreth’s 12 children contributed largely to their interest in management theory, and they developed, tested, and implemented efficiency methods in their own household in order to care for so many kids. One of their children later wrote a book called Cheaper by the Dozen, based on their family life which demonstrated the broad application of these principles in all areas of the Gilbreths’ lives. The history of scientific applications to humans in the occupational environment by the Gilbreths provided a foundation for applied ergonomics and human factors.

1.4 ERGONOMICS DEFINED

This basic definition of ergonomics is broad and comprehensive, with the intent of addressing the occupational needs of humans in a holistic fashion. This perspective is shared among applied ergonomists and researchers. Although various definitions of ergonomics exist, the essence of each of these descriptions lies in applying scientific principles to design processes, systems, equipment, and environments to be compatible with the needs of the given population.

Various definitions of the field of ergonomics and human factors exist from the scientific literature, professional organizations, government agencies, and open sources. These definitions are largely consistent but lean toward the needs of the organization. Three definitions from the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) are provided in the following text.

1.4.1 HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS SOCIETY

The HFES is dedicated to the betterment of humankind through the scientific inquiry into and application of those principles that relate to the interface of humans with their natural, residential, recreational, and vocational environments and the procedures, practices, and design considerations that increase a human’s performance and safety at those interfaces (HFES, 2011).

1.4.2 DICTIONARY OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS

Human Factors is that field which is involved in conducting research regarding human psychological, social, physical, and biological characteristics, maintaining the information obtained from that research, and working to apply that information with respect to the design, operation, or use of products or systems for optimizing human performance, health, safety, and/or habitability. (HFES, 2011; Stramler, 1993)

1.4.3 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) defines human factors as follows:

Human factors is an umbrella term for several areas of research that include human performance, technology design, and human-computer interaction. The study of human factors in the Human Factors Research and Technology Division at NASA Ames Research Center focuses on the need for safe, efficient and cost-effective operations, maintenance and training, both in flight and on the ground. (HFES, 2011; NASA AMES)

1.4.4 CETENA (THE ITALIAN SHIP RESEARCH COMPANY)

“Ergonomics is the study of human performance and its application to the design of technological systems”. The goal of this activity is to enhance productivity, safety, convenience, and quality of life. Example topics include models and theories of human performance, design and analytical methodology, human–computer interface issues, environmental and work design, and physical and mental workload assessment. Human factors engineering requires input from disciplines ranging from psychology and environmental medicine to statistics. (This definition is found at http://www.cetena.it/ergostoria.htm) (HFES, 2011).http://www.cetena.it/ergostoria.htm) (HFES, 2011).

1.4.5 ERGONOMICS AND SAFETY

While preventing injuries and fatalities is essential to optimizing human well-being, safety is just one of the many aspects of ergonomics. As can be seen from IEA’s definition, ergonomics also seeks to optimize overall performance. Ergonomics fits the task to the worker, not just to prevent injury, but also to increase productivity. Safety is intertwined with physical ergonomics topics such as defining optimal work postures and workstation layouts, minimizing repetitive motions, preventing musculoskeletal disorders, and facilitating manual material handling. However, ergonomics also includes cognitive and organizational topics, which expand beyond the limited bounds of safety, to include topics such as easing mental workload, improving human–computer interaction, optimizing policies and procedures, and ensuring quality.

1.4.6 ERGONOMICS DOMAINS

The ergonomics discipline can be classified into three domains to categorize the general area of emphasis. These domains are broadly categorized by the Federation of European Ergonomics Societies (FEES) as physical, cognitive, and organizational ergonomics. The FEES definitions of these areas are as follows (FEES, 2009):

• Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. Relevant topics include

• Working postures

• Materials handling

• Repetitive movements

• Work-related musculoskeletal disorders

• Workplace layout and design

• Safety and health

• Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, with regard to interactions among humans and other elements of a system. Relevant topics include

• Mental workload

• Decision making

• Skilled performance

• Human–computer interaction

• Human reliability

• Stress

• Training

• Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include

• Communication

• Personnel resource management

• Task design

• Design of shift hours

• Team and cooperative work

• Participatory design

• Virtual organizations

• Production

• Quality management

These categories of ergonomics can be used as guidelines for assessing risk factors and mitigating the impact of the...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Author
• Chapter 1: Foundational Ergonomics
• Chapter 2: Systems of the Human Body
• Chapter 3: Senses of the Human Body and Measurement of Environmental Factors
• Chapter 4: Muscular Work and Nervous Control of Movements
• Chapter 5: Anthropometry
• Chapter 6: Design of Workplaces and Hand Tools
• Chapter 7: Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders
• Chapter 8: Heavy Work and Evaluating Physical Workloads and Lifting
• Chapter 9: Information Ergonomics, Controls, and Displays
• Chapter 10: Warning Labels, Instructions, and Product Liability
• Index