Wars and War-Tactics in Ancient India

Uma Prasad Thapliyal

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000397727
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Indian & South Asian History
• Index: History

This work discusses the wars fought in ancient India and the war strategies that came to be developed. Advanced modes of combat were devised and new methods related to the use of various weapons were perfected. The volume also delves into The Mah?bh?rata and works like the Artha??stra, the K?mandak?y N?tis?ra and the ?ukran?ti that contain graphic descriptions of war tactics as these evolved over the centuries.

Please note: Taylor & Francis does not sell or distribute the Hardback in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.

CHAPTER 1

Wars in Ancient India: A Survey

The activities of the people are guided by the surroundings they live in. The Himālayas in the north and the ocean in the south provided India a unique identity and unity. Further, a chain of mountains running north to south separates her from Burma while Hindukush and some other ranges in the northwest separate her from West Asia and Central Asia. However, two vital passes in this chain, Khaibar in the north and Bolan in the south, which allow easy passage into India have played a crucial role in shaping her history.

In the battle for survival the early man in India invented some weapons of stone and devised some tactics to protect himself. He made weapons like axes, spears, knives, etc., by flaking and chipping stones. Subsequently, he refined his stone weapons, made them lighter and better polished. Besides stone he might also have used bones and wood. Then followed the periods of copper, bronze and iron weapons associated with Harappan and Āryan inhabitants.

THE BATTLE OF SINDH

The earliest battles of India might have been fought on the banks of the Indus, say around early second millennium BC. The authors of the Indus valley civilization could not have raised a big empire, comprising a major part of western India, without fighting battles. Excavations reveal the existence of many well laid out citadels or protective walls at many Harappan sites. At some places small rooms adjacent to big structures suggest the presence of guard rooms. Barrack like structures discovered at Lothal, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa might have served as military camps.¹ Some male head types found at Harappa, etc., have been identified as those of warriors.² Further, a large number of weapons including arrow heads have been found.³

The authors of the Indus valley civilization perhaps confronted the Āryan invaders around 1500 BC. In the process many battles might have been fought, something that is well substantiated by the Ṛgveda. The invaders while marching ahead might have destroyed many forts on the way to overcome the resistance of the natives.⁴

In the context of the Indus wars it may be stated that the presence of a large number of forts is indicative of a defensive mentality as the people chose to fight under the safety of fort-walls than on the open ground. The Āryan invaders, on the other hand, with the advantage of chariots easily destroyed the forts and subdued the defenders.

THE VAIDIKA WARS

The Āryan emigrants fought many battles with the native tribes and also among themselves during their advance and subsequent expansion towards the south and east. In the Ṛgveda there are many references to these battles.

One king, viz., Suśrvās battled against a confederation of twenty kings, who had fielded an army of more than sixty thousand men against him.⁵ Deodās of the Tṛtṣu tribe fought many battles against Turvaśas, Yadus and Purus. He also fought successfully against the Paṇis, Parvatas and Bṛsayas.⁶ His grandson Sudās also defeated a confederation of Ajas, Śigru and Yakṣu tribes led by king Bheda, on the banks of the river Yamunā.⁷

During their eastward march, Āryans fought many battles with the natives called Dāsa, Dasyu, Asura and Rākṣasa in the Ṛgveda. Indra is said to have joined Kutsa in his battle against the Dasyus and killed fifty thousand of them in an encounter. Indra also killed more than one lakh followers of Varcin, a Dāsa king. Yet, in another encounter he killed thirty thousand Dāsas. King Deodāsa also defeated the Dāsa chief Śambara. Bharatas also defeated Kīkaṭas, a native tribe, inhabiting the Magadha region. The battle of Paruṣṇī was, however, the biggest battle described in the Ṛgveda. It is also known as the battle of ten kings. This battle was fought between king Sudās, the grandson of Deodās of the Tṛtsu tribe, and the confederacy of ten kings led by Bharatas.

It seems that the extensive conquests of Sudās fanned jealousy among Āryan tribes. Consequently, Bharatas, Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Tuṛvaśas, Purus, Śimyus, Ajas, Śigrus and Yakṣus formed an alliance against him. Bheda, another tribal chief also joined them. Sudās also roped in some northern Āryan tribes on his side. He arrayed his army on the northern side of the river Paruṣṇī. The confederates on the other hand negotiated the rivers Śutudrī and Vipāś (Beas) to encamp on the southern bank of the Paruṣṇī with loaded wagons and chariots.

The confederates made a strategy to effect a breach on the embankment of the river Paruṣṇī to flood the Tṛtsu territory. But Sudās foiled the attempt with a bold initiative. He, on the other hand, adopted an outflanking strategy to defeat the confederates. With a strong contingent he crossed the river Paruṣṇī higher up, unseen by the confederate army, and launched a fierce attack from behind. Trapped between the river and the attacking army of Sudās, the confederates suffered heavy casualties. Twenty-one leaders were slain and many more drowned, including Anu and Druhyu kings. Those who managed to swim across to the northern bank were killed or captured by the encamped army of Sudās. After gaining this major victory Sudās invaded the territories of many collaborating tribes.

According to Frawley ‘most central to the historical interpretation of the Ṛgveda is the story of Sudās and the legendary battle of ten kings.... The great war of his time was an event in early ancient history, probably as significant as the Mahābhārata war was in later ancient times’. (Gods, Sages and Kings, p. 104)

The third phase involved the conquest of Magadha, Bengal and the Deccan. But the expasion towards the south did not involve major immigration as to impact the character of the population. It is notable that the Āryans introduced many revolutionary changes in the military system of India. Of these the appearance of the chariot on the Indian battlefield was the most significant. In the Ṛgveda there is a hymn in the praise of the chariot: ‘O Lord of timber, remain firm and strong, with the bearing of a strong hero, show thy strength. Let the one who rides you win the spoils of battle.’

Production of weapons was refined and many new types introduced, as it is evident from copper hoard findings. Iron came into use for making weapons. Body armour and helmet were also introduced by them.

BATTLE OF LAṄKĀ

The battle of Laṅkā as described in the Rāmāyaṇa, was fought between Rāvaṇa, the ruler of Laṅkā and Rāma, the prince of Ayodhyā.⁹ The story goes that Rāvaṇa abducted Sītā, the wife of Rāma, and made her his captive. Rāma, to seek her release from captivity, mounted an attack on Laṅkā. In this he was assisted by Sugrīva, the ruler of Kiṣkindhāpura.

Laṅkā was protected by a fort which could be entered only through the four gates. These gates were guarded by great military commanders of Laṅkā. Prabhāsa held the eastern gate, Mahāpārśva and Mahodara the southern gate, Indrajit the western gate and Śuka and Sāraṇa the northern gate, Virūpākṣa, the commander-in-chief, held the centre of the fort. The armies accompanying the commanders were well trained and equipped with all kinds of weapons. After obtaining necessary intelligence about the enemy build-up, Rāma launched a four pronged attack on Laṅkā. Nīla led the attack on the eastern gate, Aṅgada on the southern gate, Hanumān on the western gate and Lakṣamaṇa on the northern gate. Rāma stood behind occupying a central position alongside Vibhīsaṇa and Sugrīva, to render help to the four commanders.

The assault on the fort was launched in the morning. In the ensuing battle the fort was completely destroyed. In this battle Meghanāda, Kumbhakaraṇa and many commanders lost their lives. Rāvaṇa was also killed subsequently. The objective of rescuing Sītā was achieved.

BATTLE OF KURUKṢETRA

The battle of Kuruksetra as narrated in the Mahābhārata is said to be based on a historical event, dated around 1000 BC.¹⁰ It was the culmination of a long standing conflict between Kauravas and Pāṇḍavas. When all efforts to resolve the conflict peacefully failed, the combatants assembled at Kuruksetra with their armies.

Both sides tried to assemble as many allies as possible. Kṛṣṇa, five Pāṇḍava brothers, Abhimanyu and sons of Draupadi were the notables on the Pāṇḍava side. The other warriors who joined battle on the Pāṇḍava side included Dhṛsṭadyumna, Yuyudhāna, Virāṭa, Drupada, Dhṛsṭaketu, Cekitāna, Kāśirāja, Purujita, Kuntibhoja, Śaibya, Yudhāmanyu, Śikhaṇḍin, Ghaṭotakaca, and Uttamaujā.

The distinguished warriors on the Kaurava side included Bhīṣma, Droṇa, Kṛpācārya, Aśvatthāman, Karṇa, son of Soma-datta, Jayadratha, Śakuni, Śalya, Kaurava brothers, etc. It is notable that almost all rulers of India joined the battle on the one side or the other.

Pāṇḍavas assembled an army of seven akṣauhiṇīs, each led by a senāpati. The Kauravas on the other hand joined war with eleven akṣauhiṇīs. Dhṛsṭadyumna and Bhīṣma were appointed as the commanders-in-chief of respective armies, totalling to eighteen akṣauhiṇīs. It is notable that an akṣauhiṇī included 21,870 chariots, 21,870 elephants, 65,610 horses and 1,09,350 foot soldiers, making a total of 2,18,700. Multiplied by eighteen, the armies assembled at Kuruksetra add up to some forty lakh soldiers. These figures are highly exaggerated and in no circumstance such a large army could have been assembled at Kuruksetra and continued to fight for eighteen days. The number of soldiers could not have exceeded the figure of 1,00,000 in any case.

For proper command and control the akṣauhiṇī was organized in anīkinis, camūs, pratanas, gaṇas, vāhinīs, gulmas, senāmu- khas and pattis in the descending order. Patti was the smallest formation, which included 10 soldiers (1 chariot, 1 elephant, 3 horses and 5 foot soldiers). Each unit was led by a commander called camūpati, gaṇapati, etc.¹¹

The battle continued for eighteen days. Each day the armies were deployed in vyūhas (arrays) as per the dictates of military thinkers like Śukra and Bŗhaspati. In making the choice of array the strength of own a...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• Transliteration
• Abbreviations
• 1. Wars in Ancient India: A Survey
• 2. Determining Factors
• 3. The Modes of Combat
• 4. Strategical and Tactical Concepts: The Vedas, the Epics and the Smṛtis
• 5. Vyūhas in the Arthaśāstra, Nīti Works, etc.
• 6. Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Index