ONE
TRAVELING SHOES
Bakerâs Migrations and the Conundrums of Sweet Paris
JOSEPHINE BAKERâS LIFE HAS BEEN the subject of several documentaries and biographies; thus, the broad outlines of her story are fairly well known. She is often cited in popular culture as a notable African American figure whose fame abroad cast into stark relief the limitations that were placed on Black success in the United States. On June 3, 2017, Bakerâs 111th birthday, Lydia Nicholsâs Google Doodle honored Baker, who Ernest Hemingway called âthe most sensational woman any one ever saw or will,â1 with a series of interactive slides that highlighted Bakerâs life and career milestones: Bakerâs childhood in St. Louis, her upbringing during the early twentieth century, and her journey to Paris.2 Several scenes that show the music hall star dressed in fabulous and leg-revealing costumes, including the famous banana skirt, capture the fantastical aesthetic of Bakerâs 1920s music hall performances at the ThÊâtre des Champs-ĂlysĂŠes and the Folies Bergère. In contrasting the bright colors of the music hall with the dull tones of St. Louis, the Google Doodle effectively communicates the political stakes and hopes of Bakerâs relocation to Paris, where she seemed to be free of the racial barriers found in US society. This book focuses less on Bakerâs life and more on her cinematic prismatic life: her artistic development and her contributions to film.
One illustrative slide in the Google Doodle shows Baker in character with a clapperboard, hinting at the French feature films in which she starred: La sirène des tropiques, directed by Henri ĂtiĂŠvant (released in 1927 in France and 1929 in the United States), Zouzou (directed by Marc AllĂŠgret, 1934), and Princesse Tam-Tam (directed by Edmond T. GrĂŠville, 1935) as well as her short film Le pompier de Folies Bergère and the performance footage compiled in La revue des revues and Josephine Baker, Star of the Folies-Bergère and the Casino de Paris, particularly the famous banana dance. Also included is The French Way, by Jacques Baroncelli (1945).
Nicholsâs Google Doodle traces Bakerâs transitions from St. Louis to Paris and from dancing onstage to film acting to humanitarianism. As Guterl writes, â[Baker] defined herself by relentless movement, dislocation, and self-transformationâ in an itinerancy whose power she learned early in her career traveling with Clara Smith and Shuffle Along.3 Professional evolutions were certainly part of her strength. Following her service as a French Resistance spy during World War II, Baker launched a visionary initiative in which her home would serve as a multicultural haven for discussions of racial harmony. To that end, she adopted many children of different races, and she was an activist who pushed to desegregate many of the American venues where she appeared, such as the Copacabana in Miami Beach, Florida, in 1952. Bakerâs bananas at times eclipsed her political work as well as her contributions to the cinema, but that performance was a gateway. The figure of Baker is a cultural phenomenon generated by her environment, to be sure, but she was an agentive craftsperson as well. Because her films constitute the most visible but, in many ways, ironically, least truly seen aspect of her legacy, they require further examinationâparticularly now that the film landscape has changed so radically to include a wide variety of Black women filmmakers and screenwriters in the early twenty-first century.
Josephine Baker was born Freda Josephine MacDonald in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1906. In her 1927 memoir, Baker described St. Louis in straightforward terms: âIt was full of railways, factories that blew smoke over all the houses, and cold.â4 St. Louis expanded into a major industrial city in the early twentieth century, and the city became one of many significant destinations for African Americans leaving the rural South. From 1915 to 1970, âsome six million Black southerners left the land of their forefathers and fanned out across the countryâ in a series of movements that became known as the Great Migration.5 When African Americans from the South reached their destinations, they often found competition, hostility, and further deprivation. Conflict arose as ânegroes organized campaigns to challenge not only the concept of white supremacy but also the discriminatory practices resulting from it.â6 St. Louis might have been a city of promise for many, but physical violence worked in tandem with white-supremacy campaigns to systematically disfranchise Black citizens and destroy their communities.
Bakerâs posthumously published autobiography, Josephine, begins with a vivid account of her âworst memoryâ: the East St. Louis Riot of 1917, which took place across the Mississippi River in East St. Louis, Illinois. Racial tensions between whites and Blacks in East St. Louis had been heated long before the riot started. White unions sought to prevent African Americans from joining them, reducing African Americansâ chances of getting and keeping jobs and discouraging more Blacks from moving to the area. Unsubstantiated and malicious rumors that Black men were harassing white women circulated, enraging whites and endangering the lives of Black men and their families.
In the years leading up to Bakerâs birth, four thousand Americans were lynched, the vast majority of them Black Southerners who were murdered under what Ida B. Wells denounced as âthe same old racketâthe new alarm about raping white women.â7 Hundreds of Black Americans died in white-instigated race riots in those yearsâin Wilmington, North Carolina, in 1898; in New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1900; and in Atlanta, Georgia, and Bronzeville, Texas, both in 1906. In addition to physical violence, Black Americans faced institutionalized separate and unequal facilities in the wake of the 1896 Plessy case.8
Bakerâs account highlights the systemic and brutal nature of the racism that shaped the overall context of her personal reality. On May 28, 1917, word spread that a Black man had shot a white store owner during a robbery. Next, a mob of whites attacked African American homes, businesses, and churches, often burning them to the ground. Baker wrote,
The violence had been going on for several days when, on July 1, there was a shooting from a passing car. The following night, residents opened fire on an unmarked police car. The cycle of revenge and attack continued, devastating African Americansâ central institutions, including churches, businesses, homes, and schools. An estimated one hundred or more African Americans were killed. The Illinois attorney general indicted eighty-two whites and twenty-three Blacks. Nine of the whites were sentenced, and seven white police officers who were charged with murder were collectively fined $150. Juries convicted ten African Americans of murdering the undercover police officers, sentencing them to fourteen years in prison.10
BAKERâS RAGTIME CONSERVATORY
With racial violence as an ever-present backdrop, Bakerâs recollections of her childhood combine the harshness of her impoverished familyâs daily life with the delight and reprieve that her musical encounters provided. Both of Bakerâs parents had been small-time performers, but her mother supported the family as a laundress when Bakerâs father left. Baker worked as a live-in domestic helper from the age of seven. But she was always creative and actively formulating her own personal aesthetic. She even played at being a director when she created shows at home with her siblings and friends. She wrote in her memoir, âAt Saint-Louis, at my motherâs, I had organized a small theater in the cellar. I was not yet ten years old. The curtain was made of pieces of cloth tied end to end. I had placed the candles on the tins of âNew Zealandâ peaches. The old scraps of candles lit up the steps of the staircaseâall three stepsâto descend. The audience consisted of a dozen girls and boys, seated at random on boxes and on an old bench.â11
Bakerâs aesthetic autonomy included playing makeshift instruments, and she recounted this experience both in her artistic biography offered in Les mĂŠmoires and in Josephine, where she wrote, âEveryone seemed to own an accordion, a banjo or harmonica. Those without enough money for real instruments made banjos from cheese boxes. We played music that to us was beautiful on everything from clothesline strung across barrel halves to paper-covered combs. As soon as the music began, I would move my arms and legs on the treasure we pulled from the trash: tin cans, battered saucepans, abandoned wooden and metal containers. What a wonderful time we had!â12
In moments like this, Baker reveals the development of her strong personal aesthetic as a child; by describing it in her book, she asserts her identity as an artist. Baker made herself into an artist by writing these stories and by naming her inspirations and the world around her as collaborators in her developing imaginary. She wrote, âI used to play by stealing my momâs high-heeled shoes and dresses in which I would completely disappear. I seemed to be trapped in a bag, like a diverâs suit.â13 She was fond of her grandmotherâs big hats and long flowery robes, and she often pretended to be her grandmother by wearing her clothes and a red wig. These activities and memories were crucial to Bakerâs early explorations of her own imagination, and she recounted them particularly in her first memoir to explain where she came from and what inspired her.14 A youthful Baker brought her flair to whatever objects were available for playing characters and entertaining herself and her friends.
However, her childhood memories were not only of artistic escapades. As an author, she also addressed how much her daily life was affected by her familyâs poverty. She and her siblings often wandered their neighborhood searching for food or selling coal. These circumstances pushed Baker to support herself and her family at a young age. She recalled, âI had been seven then. . . . Mama had explained to me that we were very poor, that Daddy couldnât find work. As the oldest child, it was up to me to help out. A white woman was coming to take me away. I was to call her Mistress and do as she said. In return, she would give me shoes and a coat.â But Bakerâs work turned out to be dangerous, and this arrangement ended in her being taken to the hospital unconscious, where she was treated for âcuts and bruisesâ and woke up to find that her âhands were badly burned and [she was] shaking with fear.â15 The little girlâs employer was arrested for abusing her, and Baker returned home with her mother, the horrible experience doubtless informing her resolve to build a better life. Feminist scholar Hazel Carby notes that âbeing a member of a vaudeville show or performing in a nightclub was not attractive primarily because it offered a mythic life of glamor but because it was a rare opportunity to do clean work and to reject the life of a domestic servant.â16 At age thirteen, she worked briefly serving food at the Old Chaufferâs Club, a popular meeting place for jazz musicians, as a potential strategy to find a means of supporting herself and her family that was safer.17 Eight months later, Baker, not yet age fourteen, quit that job when she married her first husband, Willie Wells. However, the union ended shortly after it began, and Baker returned to the restaurant, which put her back in a performersâ milieu.
That waitressing job involved service, but it was a formative experience, indirectly exposing her to the musicianâs life when traveling entertainers would gather for their meals between shows. Fortuitously, this is where Baker met the Jones Family Band, a trio that performed in tent shows and outside the r...