Nanotechnology

Principles and Applications

Rakesh K. Sindhu, Mansi Chitkara, Inderjeet Singh Sandhu

• Publisher: Jenny Stanford Publishing
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000258356
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Physics
• Index: Physics

This book gives a summary of the rapidly growing field of nanotechnology and includes materials and technologies that help in developing particles of various sizes, which can be utilized in different areas of research. It discusses the role of nanotechnology in different aspects, such as healthcare, especially in target-specific drug therapy for managing a number of medical disorders; agriculture, for developing smart field systems; and food industry, for improving and stabilizing the quality, healthiness, and shelf life of food. Being multidisciplinary, this book brings together the principles, theory, practices, and applications of not only nanotechnology but also those of nanobiotechnology, pharmaceuticals, food packaging, biosensors, and electronic devices. The book will be an exhilarating read for advanced undergraduate- and graduate-level students, general readers interested in nanotechnology, and researchers in chemistry, biology, and engineering.

The scope of the book extends from basic research in physics, chemistry, and biology, including computational work and simulations, through to the development of new devices and technologies for applications in a wide range of industrial sectors (including information technology, medicine, manufacturing, high-performance materials, and energy and environmental technologies). It covers organic, inorganic, and hybrid materials and is an interdisciplinary book.

Chapter 1

Introduction and Basics of Nanotechnology

Anjali Saharan,^a Pooja Mittal,^a Kashish Wilson,^a Inderjeet Verma^b

^aMM School of Pharmacy, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Sadopur-Ambala, India

^bMM College of Pharmacy, MM(DU), Mullana-Ambala, India

[email protected]

Nanotechnology is a broad term that includes a variety of technologies and materials involving a vast variation of particle size helpful in different aspects of technology and research. In terms of technology and science, nanotechnology deals with smaller (nano) sized particles. The size of the created nanomaterials ranges from 1 to 500 nm, which allows the exploration of materials at the nanoscale. Nanomaterials have gained eminence in the field of advanced technologies because of their alterable physical, biological, and chemical properties. Their uniqueness is due to their higher surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is responsible for their numerous advantages over conventional materials, such as higher optical clarity, higher entrapment of the material enclosed, and hence faster action, which make them suitable for various industrial applications. All these exceptional and unique features of these particles lead to their demand in various commercial and research facilities. Nanotechnology has grabbed its roots in various fields such as in the food industry, fertilizers, biosensors, nanoelectronics, biopharmaceuticals, and biopolymers. This chapter will explore the concept of nanotechnology with a brief overview of the method of production and applications of nanomaterials in various fields.

1.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology and nanoscience have spread roots in various product domains during the past few years. Nanotechnology helps in the development of materials along with their clinical applications where traditional techniques are limited in the desired criteria. The word “nano” has been used as a prefix in a variety of reports for the last few decades with vast applications in technology [1]. The word nanotechnology was formed using two terms, the first being “nano,” which comes from the Greek term “nanos” meaning dwarf, and the second being “technology.” Nanotechnology involves the use and knowledge of tools, machines, and techniques that promote research along with problem solving or specific function performance. Nanotechnology is defined as the study of controlling or manipulating matter on an atomic or molecular scale [2]. The structure range of nanoparticles varies between 1 and 100 nm in one dimension [3]. As from all such specifications of this technology, humans were the first to have their role in all fields of nanotechnology [4]. In research also, it gets expanded to two prominent areas-nanoparticles (NPs) and nanostructured materials (NSMs). These factors lead to greater contribution in the fields of research and technoeconomic world with a great distinction in technology due to their variant physicochemical characteristics such as melting point, wettability, thermal and electrical conductivity, light absorption, catalytic activity, and scattering, resulting in enhanced performance over their bulk counterparts [5]. Different evaluation parameters of nanotechnology are provided in different standards of measurement bureaus, such as nanometer (nm), which is an SI (International System of Units) unit (10−⁹ m in length). Different legislations such as the European Union (EU) and the United States postulated different definitions. Thus, there is diverse variation till date and no single internationally accepted definition for nanomaterials (NMs) exists.

A few definitions are as follows:

1. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Nano materials can exhibit unique properties dissimilar than the equivalent chemical compound in a larger dimension” [6].
2. The US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) also refers to NMs as “materials that have at least one dimension in the range of approximately 1 to 100 nm and exhibit dimension-dependent phenomena.” The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has described NMs as a “material with any external nanoscale dimension or having internal nanoscale surface structure” [6].
3. The European Commission (EU) describes the term nanomaterial as “a manufactured or natural material that possesses unbound, aggregated or agglomerated particles where external dimensions are between 1–100 nm size range.”

As mentioned, diverse definitions have led to a major hurdle for nanomaterials in the field of regulatory efforts to lead and implement a legal hesitation in applying regulatory approaches to all. To satisfy the diverging needs, an international definition should be coined to mimic the differences and for smooth implementation of regulatory provisions.

The term nanoparticle is coined from the relative bonding of two words: nanospheres and nanocapsules. Nanospheres are defined as matrix-like cage, which encapsulates the drug uniformly, while in nanocapsules, drug is surrounded by a unique polymeric membrane. Nanotechnology and nanoscience studies have emerged rapidly during the past years in a broad range of product domains [7]. These approaches have led to their vast applications in the fields of conventional medicine. Nanotechnology provides opportunities for the development of materials through medical and conventional approaches. Due to these unconditional benefits in every field, it cannot be standardized as a single unit. Nanotechnology is involved in the production of designs and applications of materials at atomic, molecular, and macromolecular scales used to produce novel nanosized structures [8]. Pharmaceutical nanoparticles are defined as solid, submicron-sized (less than 100 nm in diameter) drug carriers that may or may not be biodegradable [9].

1.2 Historical Background

The term “nano” is not new in this era. Nanotechnology has been a well-known field in era of research for the last few decades. The concept of nanotechnology is not new to nature or humankind [10]. A prominent example of human-made nanomaterial is stained glass. As discussed above, the role of nanotechnology has been well reported in the field of medicine and in conventional approaches. Nanoscale features are often consolidated into bulk materials and large surfaces [8, 11]. Nobel laureate Richard Feynman was the first person who explored and presented the conceptual foundations of nanotechnology in 1959. During their evolution, various materials have been explored and formulated at the nanoscale level. Nanoparticles include a variety of materials that include particulate substances, which have dimension less than 100 nm [12]. Depending on the shape, materials are classified as zero dimensional (0D), one dimensional (1D), two dimensional (2D), or three dimensional (3D) [13].

The diversity in the sizes leads to differences in the physio-chemical properties of a substance, such as optical properties. The influence of these optical properties shows characteristic colors and properties with the variation of size and shape, which can be utilized in bioimaging applications [14]. The alteration of the above-mentioned factor influences the absorption properties of the nano-particles, and hence different absorption colors are observed. NPs are mainly composed of three layers; the first layer is the surface layer, which is functionalized within a variety of small molecules, metal ions, polymers, and surfactants. The second layer is a shell layer, which is a chemically different material from the core, and the third layer is the core, which is mainly considered the central position of the nanoparticles [15]. Owing to such exceptional characteristics, these materials have got immense interest of scientific researchers in multidisciplinary fields. To conclude, pharmaceutical nanoparticles are defined as solid, submicron-sized (less than 100 nm in diameter) drug carriers that may be biodegradable.

1.3 Classification of Nanoparticles

Classification of nanoparticles is done on various basis, including functional features such as structural configuration; origin, such as natural or synthetic engineered nanoparticles; dimensional structures, such as one, two, and three dimensional; morphology, size, and chemical properties, such as carbon-based nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, ceramic nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles; organic profiles, such as carbon-based nanomaterials, inorganic nanomaterials, organic nanomaterials, and composite-based nanomaterials. Their variable characteristic steric effects make them distinguishing and productive for various profiles [16]. An elaborate description of these nanoparticles is provided in the following sections.

1.3.1 Nanoparticles Based on Origin

Based on origin, nanoparticles are broadly classified into two categories, natural and synthetic nanomaterials.

1.3.1.1 Natural nanomaterials

Natural nanomaterials are present in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. The earth is surrounded by various nanoparticles in the form of rocks, soils, magma, or lava in the biosphere. Various microorganisms and humans are also included in the same. The naturally occurring nanomaterials and nanoparticles are mainly produced by two aspects, th...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• 1. Introduction and Basics of Nanotechnology
• 2. Application of Nanotechnology in Pharmaceutical Sciences
• 3. Nanographenes for Renewable Energy
• 4. Nanotechnology: Applications, Opportunities, and Constraints in Agriculture
• 5. Nanotechnological Advances for Nutraceutical Delivery
• 6. Nanobiotechnology: Applications and Future Prospects
• 7. Nanocomposites: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications
• 8. Nanobiosensors and Their Applications
• 9. Nanofertilizers: Applications and Future Prospects
• 10. Nanotechnology in Food Production
• 11. Nanophotocatalysts: Applications and Future Scope
• 12. Nanotechnology in Food Packaging: Current Uses and Future Applications
• 13. Biomedical Diagnostics through Nanocomputing
• 14. Nanofluids: Current Applications and Future Challenges
• 15. Nanoelectronics: Basic Concepts, Approaches, and Applications
• Index