The Ottoman Turks

Cannon Sell

• Publisher: Jovian Press
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781537808482
• Topic: Persönliche Entwicklung
• Subtopic: Reisen

AMONGST THE NUMEROUS NOMAD RACES of Central Asia there were two great tribes - the Mongols and the Turks - who in the thirteenth century overran a great part of the Muslim empire and penetrated beyond it. Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad, the seat of the renowned Abbasid Khalifate and the Mongols soon overran the Syrian empire of Saladin, which had come now under the rule of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt. The Mongols on different occasions made several ineffectual attempts to invade Egypt, and were repulsed by the bravery of the Mamluks; but they entered Europe and advanced as far as Hungary. They were nomads and, as a rule, could not settle down; so after ravaging a country they usually retired from it. For a time, however, they retained possessions in China, and, as the Golden Horde, ruled in the Crimea; but they left no permanent mark on the Muslim empire of the Khalifate; and so we may pass them by.

RISE OF THE EMPIRE

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AMONGST THE NUMEROUS NOMAD RACES of Central Asia there were two great tribes—the Mongols and the Turks—who in the thirteenth century overran a great part of the Muslim empire and penetrated beyond it. Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad, the seat of the renowned ‘Abbasid Khalifate and the Mongols soon overran the Syrian empire of Saladin, which had come now under the rule of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt. The Mongols on different occasions made several ineffectual attempts to invade Egypt, and were repulsed by the bravery of the Mamluks; but they entered Europe and advanced as far as Hungary. They were nomads and, as a rule, could not settle down; so after ravaging a country they usually retired from it. For a time, however, they retained possessions in China, and, as the Golden Horde, ruled in the Crimea; but they left no permanent mark on the Muslim empire of the Khalifate; and so we may pass them by.

The other branch of these great nomad barbarians, the Turks, did otherwise. They supplied the Khalifas of Baghdad with mercenary troops who soon became the rulers of their nominal masters. As imported slaves they attained also to royal power in Egypt. They founded a dynasty at Ghazni and captured Khurasan where they created the empire, the Seljuk Turks. Then came the great Mongol invasion under Chengiz Khan driving the Turks further south and west. Their clans under the names of the White and Black Weir (sheep) exercised much influence in the thirteenth century.

The Muslim empire at that time had almost passed away from its old Arab rulers. The Mongols had subdued Persia and advanced to the regions of the Volga and the Ural mountains, whilst Turks ruled in Asia Minor and Turkish Mamluks held Egypt. Against these two Turkish powers the Mongols could do nothing. The Seljuk Sultans of Iconium and the Mamluks of Egypt held their own and remained when all fear of the Mongols had passed away. Amongst the tribes which followed the Seljuks was one which was led by its chief Ertoghul. It so happened that one day Ertoghul was proceeding with a small band of men in the direction of Anatolia, where he unexpectedly came upon a battlefield (Angora) in which the Seljuk Sultan was contending against a strong and determined foe. At once Ertoghul and his four hundred men joined in the conflict and helped to gain a victory for the Seljuks. On another occasion also they rendered valuable military assistance. The Sultan in return for this welcome aid allowed them to settle on land where good pasturage and suitable winter quarters were found. This was in the neighborhood of Angora and not far from the boundaries of the Byzantine province of Bithynia.

In 1258, the year in which Baghdad fell, ‘Uthman, the son of Ertoghul, was born. In due course he asserted his absolute independence, and founded the dynasty of the ‘Uthmanulis, or as they are better known, the Ottoman Turks. With them our history begins. Thirty-five Sultans of the Ottoman Turks have succeeded Ertoghul in the male line without a break.

Ertoghul died in 1288 and ‘Uthman became head of the clan; in the same year Orkhan, son of ‘Uthman, was born. The years of the earlier manhood of ‘Uthman had been peaceable ones, during which he established a reputation for administrative ability and for justness in his rule. In the beginning of the fourteenth century the Seljuk empire which was split up into ten states had begun to fall into decay. Many of its feudatory vassals aspired to independent rule over domains of their own. ‘Uthman remained firm in his allegiance and as a reward, in 1295, the Seljuk Sultan ‘Ala’u’d-din Kaikobad II made him a ruler over a territory he had that year conquered, and presented him with the horse-tail, drum and banner, which were the insignia of independent rule. His name was now inserted in the Friday prayers. The date 1295 may be considered to mark the beginning of the Ottoman empire. Gradually, however, the Ottomans began to absorb the domains of the Seljuks, but the process was not completed till some years after ‘Uthman’s death. When the Seljuk dynasty had become extinct, there was no power left sufficiently strong to curb the ambition of the Ottomans, though the stronger among the ten states which arose out of the Seljuk empire successfully resisted them for a time.

The Ottomans now turned their attention to the easier work of invading the neighboring Christian lands, and the conflict with the Greek emperor began in earnest. The inroads were frequent and each campaign attracted volunteers to ‘Uthman’s service and increased the number of his captives. As the Mongols had so frequently done, he did not after such forays return to a pastoral life, but fortified the places he had captured and so showed his intention of remaining in the newly conquered territory. After years of warfare, the city of Brusa was captured in 1326. ‘Uthman was now in his last illness, but he lived long enough to know that his standard had been [planted in the city he had so long wished to capture, and which now became the capital of his growing kingdom. He was buried within its walls. He was the real founder of the Ottoman empire and each successive Sultan is girded with the sword of ‘Uthman, preserved in Constantinople for that purpose.

‘Uthman was succeeded by his son Orkhan (1326-59). The Christian inhabitants of Brusa

were spared their lives on payment of a ransom of thirty thousand crowns of gold. A mosque and a college were built, and Arabic and Persian scholars of repute were invited to the city which now became the capital of the Ottomans.

‘Uthman had two sons ‘Ala’u’d-din and Orkhan. The latter, though the younger son, became the ruler on account of his martial vigor. Having established himself at Brusa, he paid little attention to the smaller states which had arisen in Asia out of the late Seljuk kingdom, preferring to attract the members of them by the superior organization of his own territories and by victorious campaigns against the Greeks, which in due time he undertook. At first, he directed his time and energies to the capturing of the Greek strongholds in Asia. In a few years Nicomedia, Meacea and Pergamos were added to his dominions, and after the defeat of the emperor Andronicus the Ottoman kingdom extended to the shores of the Hellespont, and the Byzantines retained in 1338 only two towns—Ala Shair and Rega. Orkhan behaved well to the people of the conquered cities. When Meacea was taken, the people were allowed to retire with all their goods; an act of clemency which won the admiration of the Greeks for their conqueror.

Having thus gained control of the whole of the north-west corner of Asia Minor and the command of one shore of the Bosphorus, Orkhan was content to rest for a while. He now saw clearly that the conquest of the Byzantine empire would be arduous and prolonged, and that the best way to ensure final success was to consolidate his dominions, improve his administration, and organize an efficient army. In these endeavors twenty years of peace passed by. ‘Ala’u’d-din was appointed Vizier, and it is to his efforts that the success of the administration and the formation of an army were largely due.

The old plan had been for the chiefs of the clans to summon their men to war, and when the campaign was over the soldiers returned home and pursued their avocations. This plan was now changed entirely. Instead of this somewhat uncertain and untrained force a standing army was formed in which besides the Ottomans, many Seljuks and members of other nomad tribes w were enrolled. A paid corps of infantry, called the Piyade was formed. Their wages were small, but they were given lands on the condition that they were always ready for active service. They were rude soldiers and not always amenable to discipline; so a regiment one thousand strong was formed from the boys of the Christian families conquered in the wars and made captives. Every year for centuries after a thousand Christian youths were thus taken and trained as soldiers. A special officer, the Tournaji Basha, made periodical visits to all the provinces for this purpose; later on youths from Albania, Bosaia and Bulgaria were preferred. When the captives were not sufficient the Christian subjects had to give up their sons until the required number was made up. After 1648 this levy ceased as the children of the men enrolled were sufficient for the purpose. The lads were brought up as Muslims, were carefully trained under the strictest discipline and well rewarded when their courage and conduct deserved it. “Cut off from all ties of country, kith and kin, but with high pay and privileges, with opportunities for military advancement and for the gratification of the violent and the sensual passions of their animal natures, this military brotherhood grew up to be the strongest and fiercest instrument of imperial ambition, which remorseless fanaticism, prompted by the most subtle statecraft, ever devised upon earth.”

Thus the famous corps of the Janissaries was formed in the year 1328. The Sultan sought religious sanction for his action. The services of a venerable Shaikh of the Baktashiyya Order of Derwishes were called in, and Hajji Baktash blessed the boys by putting the sleeve of his robe on the head of one of them in such a way that it hung down his back, and then addressing the Sultan

said: “The militia which you have just created shall be called Yeni Cheri (new troops); its figures shall be fair and shining, its arm redoubtable, its sword sharp. It shall be victorious in all battles and ever return triumphant.” To commemorate the blessing bestowed by the sleeve of Hajji Baktash, the Janissaries wore a white felt cap, with a piece of the same material pendant on their backs.

In addition to the Piyade and the Janissaries an irregular force of infantry was formed, whose sad and peculiar duty it was to bear the first brunt of an attack; and when they were cut down or severely treated, the Janissaries rushed on over their dead bodies to attack the now possibly disorganized enemy. A select body of horse soldiers called Sipahis (Sepoys), who held lands on a feudal tenure, completed the army.

Having now formed this useful army, Orkhan was able to think of further conquests. On the opposite shore of the Hosphorus was the beautiful city of Constantinople. Naturally his thoughts turned that way. The Byzantine empire had now lost much of its grandeur and much of its power. As a result of civil wars many provinces had been lost, and in Constantinople sedition was rife and rival factions deprived the emperors of any real power. “The property of the Greeks was plundered, their landed estates were confiscated, and even their families were often sold into slavery. The landed property and the military power, with the social influence they conferred, passed into the hands of the Serbs, the Albanians, the Genoese, and the Ottoman Turks.”

The emperor Cantacuzemus gave his daughter Theodora in marriage to the Sultan. In order to secure the aid of the Turks they were permitted to ravage a province, capture as many Christians as they could and sell them as slaves. This they were permitted to do in Constantinople itself, and the distressed Greeks saw their fellow-Christians of both sexes and of all classes exposed in a public market, and sold to the highest bidder to be henceforth subject to temporal and spiritual bondage.

Orkhan defeated the enemies of Cantacuzemus, and penetrated the country as far as the Balkans, thus learning how defenseless it was and what an easy prey it would prove to his young and vigorous army. In 1355 Orkhan sent his son Suleyman Pasha with a small force to cross the Hellespont. Other troops followed and the European shore was secured by the Ottomans. The fortress of Gallipole was taken and other towns were captured. The Ottomans had now come to stay. In 1358 Suleyman was killed by a fall from his horse, the news of which so affected his father Orkhan that he died two months after. He lived long enough to prove the value of his military organization and to test the valor of his new troops. The great merit of all Orkhan’s administrative arrangements was that they admitted of development and extension as the empire grew. Long after, when Muhammad II improved the civil administration he based his reforms on Orkhan’s institutions and made them the model of his legislation.

Murad I (1359-89), called Amurath by European writers, succeeded his father. He was a bold and active warrior and soon seized an opportunity of invading Europe. By that time the dominions of the Greek empire had become very much restricted, and many provinces, afterwards included in the Ottoman empire, were under independent princes. This probably postponed the fall of Constantinople for a time, as they had to be first subdued.

Cantacuzemus was now dead and John Palaeologus was emperor. He was utterly incapable of opposing Murad. In 1361 Adrianople was taken and in 1467 it was made the Turkish capital instead of Brusa. Three years later Philippolis fell to the Ottomans. The leaders of the various independent states were now alarmed. These people were far more vigorous than the Greeks; and Murad found in the Serbs, Bosnians, Bulgarians, Albanians and Hungarians valiant and determined foes. In 1364 a contest began, which in modern days has been renewed with entirely different results, for it is the Ottomans who have now lost their pristine vigor. Then an allied army 60,000 strong was beaten by a much smaller Ottoman force under Lala Shahin, Murad’s commander-in-chief.

In 1373 the Turks conquered Macedonia crossed the Balkans and captured Nissa. The king of Serbia had to supply a contingent of troops and to pay a tribute in order to save his kingdom. The ruler of Bulgaria obtained peace by giving his daughter, which apparently he was more ready to do than to part with money. Lala Shahin was made a feudal lord over these provinces.

About this time Murad returned to his Asiatic dominions to celebrate the marriage of his son Bayazid, surnamed Yildirim, or Thunderbolt, from the energy he displayed in battle and the quickness of his movements in action. This wedding brought a large accession of territory in the form of a dowry. The absence of Murad in Asia was an opportunity not to be lost, and the Christian princes, vexed at the yearly drain of their boys for the regiment of the Janissaries, and feeling the irksomeness of the tribute required, formed an alliance against the Ottomans, and in Bosnia nearly annihilated one of their armies. Murad and Bayazid quickly returned and won the great battle of Kosovo in 1382. The Serbs, the Hungarians and others numbered 100,000 men and the conflict was long and fierce. At a council of war it was proposed that the camels of the baggage train should be placed in front to form a living rampart and to confuse the horses of the knights by the smell which proceeded from them. Bayazid opposed this plan, saying: “The honor of our flag requires that we should meet the enemy face to face.” His advice was accepted and the camels were sent to the rear. Bayazid displayed great valor and by his brilliant fighting and rapid movements maintained the reputation of his name Yildirim, or Thunderbolt. The slaughter was great. It was, however, a sad day for the Ottomans, for Milosh Kobilovich, a Serb soldier, gained admittance into the tent of Murad and stabbed him to death with a dagger. Murad lived long enough to give orders for the final charge of his troops and for the execution of Lazarus, the king of Serbia, now a prisoner. The assassin was slain at once, but his work was done and ever since he has been regarded by the Serbs as a hero.

The result of the defeat at Kosovo was that Serbia became a province tributary to the Sultan, although it was allowed to have its own rulers who assumed he title of Despot. This state of things continued for about seventy years, when in 1459 Sultan Muhammad II occupied Serbia and made it a Turkish pashalik. This ignominious position it held for three hundred and forty-five years. In 1804 the struggle for independence began and after long years of conflict it was at length successful.

Constantinople was still spared, but the emperor, John Palaeologus, and his sons had to follow the camp and court of Murad. This humiliation of his rivals satisfied Murad for the present. A show of friendship was maintained and the emperor gave one daughter to Murad and two others to his sons Bayazid and Ya’qub Chelebi. Thus these and other princesses played their sorrowful part in the diplomatic game.

Murad’s son, Sanji Bey, now governor of Brusa, concerted a plot with Andronicus, son of Palaeologus, to dethrone their respective fathers. It was a foolish thing to do and was soon discovered. Sanji was executed; and the emperor gave orders that his son should be made blind.

Murad was renowned for his courage, for the extension of his empire, and for the love and the fear which his subjects bore towards him.

In the presence of the victorious troops at Kosovo Bayazid I (1389-1402) was proclaimed Sultan. His first act was to give the order for the execution of his brother Ya’qub Chelebi, who had fought bravely in the recent battle. He remembered how his brother, Sanji Bey, had plotted against Murad and he was determined that there should be no family plot against himself. It set a mournful precedent, for henceforward it became the rule for Sultans on their accession to murder their brothers. There is a text in the Qur’an which says, “Civil strife is worse than bloodshed.” The action of Bayazid was probably a straining of this text, but assuming that “civil strife” was likely to follow, it gave some show of authority for his cruel deed. For many generations this sanction was thus taken and the result of putting out of the way any possible male claimant to the throne has been that revolutions arising from family disputes have not been common. In later times these unfortunate brothers were confined to the harems and grew up ignorant, if not imbecile.

Bayazid continued his wars and King Stephen of Serbia was compelled to sue for peace. In the treaty which followed he accepted the position of a vassal, undertook to furnish a contingent of soldiers to render in person military service to the Sultan, a task he honorably fulfilled, and to give his sister to the Sultan for a wife. This lady was a woman of strong character and influence. It is said of her that “of all his wives he (Bayazid) held her dearest, and for her sake restored to her brother the city and castle of Semendria, and Columbarum in Serbia; she allured him to drink wine forbidden by their law and caused him to delight in sumptuous banquets, which his predecessors never did.”

Uskub was taken and Turks settled there as colonists and a feudal system was organized, out of which grew the landed proprietors, afterwards known by the names of Derebeys and Pashas. Wallachia was conquered in the year 1392 and its ruler became a tributary. When all this had been accomplished, the Sultan was called to his Asiatic dominions where trouble had arisen. With his usual rapidity he passed from place to place and soon secured possession of all that had belonged to the Seljuk kingdom. To these conquests must be add...

Table of contents

• THE OTTOMAN TURKS
• RISE OF THE EMPIRE
• THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE