Roman Conquests: Britain

Simon Elliott

• Publisher: Pen and Sword Military
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781526765697
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Military & Maritime History
• Index: History

The Roman Conquests series seeks to explain when and how the Romans were able to conquer a vast empire stretching from the foothills of the Scottish Highlands to the Sahara Desert, from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf. How did their armies adapt to and overcome the challenges of widely varied enemies and terrain? In this volume, Dr Simon Elliott draws on the latest research and archaeological evidence to present a new narrative of the conquest (never completed) of Britain. From Julius Caesar’s initial incursions in 55 and 54 BC, through the Claudian invasion of 43 AD and the campaigns of expansion and pacification thereafter, he analyses the Roman army in action. The weapons, equipment, organization, leadership, strategy and tactics of the legions and their British foes are described and analysed. The ferocity of the resistance was such that the island was never wholly subdued and required a disproportionate military presence for the duration of its time as a Roman province.

Chapter 1

The Roman Military in the Republic and Empire

The Roman military establishment at the time of the Caesarian and Claudian invasions of Britain was pre-eminent in a world where to that date it lacked a true symmetrical threat, that being one whose military tactics and technology matched its own, unless through weight of numbers. It was to remain so through much of the Principate, though this dominance diminished as the Empire transitioned the ‘Crisis of the Third Century’ into the later Dominate phase of Empire.

Most often in the later Republic and Principate, when on campaign and in battle, the Roman military won. When it did lose to Britons, Germans, Sarmatians or Parthians, it always learned from its mistakes and came back the better for it. This reflected two key broader Roman military traits. These were the ability to assimilate superior opposing tactics and technology, and the true grit to never accept defeat, fighting on against adversity until ultimate victory.

Given the central role the Roman military played in the Empire’s campaigns of conquest in Britain, an understanding of this military establishment in all of its phases of existence is essential to appreciate Rome’s many engagements here. Therefore, in this chapter I consider the legions of the late Republic and Principate, then the auxiliaries and regional fleets of the Principate, before finally detailing the Roman military establishment of the later Dominate phase of Empire when the distinctions between earlier troop types becomes much more opaque.

The Legions of the Late Republic and Principate

The Roman legionary of the late Republic and Principate was the elite warrior of the ancient world, and the result of nearly 800 years of military evolution. This progression included five distinct phases prior to the time of Septimius Severus in the early 3rd century AD when the transition began towards the military establishment of the later Dominate. These phases were:

• The Tullian system of Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome and second Etrusco-Roman king (575 BC to 535 BC). Based on his Servian Constitution, this was built around equites wealthy citizen cavalry, an Etruscan-style hoplite phalanx of armoured spearman known as the First Class, and four classes of supporting troops.

• The Camillan System of Marcus Furius Camillus, consular tribune for the first time in 401 BC. He initiated a major reform of the Roman military after the Tullian system was tested to breaking point in its shattering defeat by the Senone Gauls at the Battle of Allia in 390 BC, and the subsequent traumatic sack of Rome. Camillus introduced the manipular legion of 3,000 men (later up to 5,000) with its three classes of legionary, who were called so for the first time from this point. These were triarii veterans, principes older warriors and hastati ‘flower of the young men’.

• The Polybian System (Elliott, 2018, 34) introduced after Rome’s conflict with Pyrrhus of Epirus in the late 280s and early 270s BC. An evolution of the Camillan manipular system, this retained the three distinct types of legionary but added other troop types including velite skirmishing javelinmen.

• The Marian System introduced by the seven-times warrior consul Gaius Marius. Again reflecting the Roman trait for learning from defeat, these widespread reforms were introduced at the height of the Cimbrian Wars in 107 BC at a time when the legions of the manipular system were losing on a regular basis against the Cimbri Germanic invaders of Gaul. Marius introduced the 6,000-man legion, based around centuries rather than maniples. Each legion had 4,800 legionaries all armed in the same way (see below), with the remaining 1,200 men specialists and support staff (though retaining the ability to fight as front line legionaries when needed). The Marian legions of the late Republic set the template for those of the Principate, with each a self-contained fighting force highly mobile when on campaign and in battle.

• The Augustan System, introduced by the first Emperor after his elevation by the Senate in 27 BC. As Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (henceforth styled Octavian) he had inherited 60 legions from the last, vicious round of Roman civil wars in the late 1st century BC. Augustus’ main contribution to the evolution of the legion was rationalising their number down to 28, this falling to 25 after Varus’ losses in Germany in AD 9. The total would then remain around 30 for the next 250 years, peaking at 33 under Septimius Severus in the late 2nd century AD.

The numbering and naming of the legions can seem confusing to a modern audience, reflecting their being raised by a variety of different Republican leaders and later Emperors, and at different times. Many legions shared the same number but had different names, for example there being five third legions. Others shared the same name but had different numbering, for example legio I, legio II, legio III and legio IV Italica.

From the time of the late Republic, as the might of Rome established control not only of the lands around the western and eastern Mediterranean but also territories deep into continental Europe, the legions were stationed on or near the frontiers of Roman controlled territory. This best positioned them to carry out further campaigns of conquest if so ordered, and also acted as a deterrent against any opponent outside Roman controlled territory bold enough to act aggressively.

Caesar’s legions in his two expeditions to Britain were Marian in nature. The latter had aimed to turn each individual legion into a selfcontained fighting force. To do this Marius standardised his legionaries on the pilum and gladius-armed principes and hastati, with the spear-armed triarii and javelin-armed velites disappearing entirely. From this point, all of the fighting men in the legion were simply called legionaries, whether the 4,800 battle-line troops or 1,200 specialists. Each Marian century comprised 80 legionaries and 20 support staff, these sub-divided into units of 10 (comprising 8 legionaries and two non-combatants). Each century was commanded by a centurion, they having specific titles which reflected their seniority based on the old Camillan and Polybian manipular legions. The titles, with seniority in ascending order, were:

• hastatus posterior

• hastatus prior

• princeps posterior

• princeps prior

• pilus posterior

• pilus prior

The principal missile weapon of Caesar’s legionaries was the pilum weighted javelin, these originally of Etruscan or Spanish origin. Each legionary carried two, one light and one heavy (Cowan, 2003b, 30). Both featured a barbed head on a long, tapering iron shank whose lead weighted socket attached it to a wooden shaft and provided the punching force to hammer through enemy shields and armour. The lighter pilum was thrown at range, the heavy one immediately prior to impact. The long iron shafts on both were specifically designed to bend after impact and so disable the use of the opponent’s shield.

However, the main weapon of the Caesarian legionary was the gladius hispaniensis sword. Originally a Spanish design as its name suggests, this was first adopted by the Polybian legions after the Romans fought the Iberian mercenaries of Hannibal in the Second Punic War. Rather than being the short stabbing sword of popular legend, the gladius was originally a cut-and-thrust weapon of medium length, around 69cm long and 5cm in width and featuring a tapering sharp stabbing point. Those originally used by the legionaries shocked their Hellenistic pike-wielding opponents in the Second Macedonian War, given the gaping wounds inflicted on the pikemen. This was because a key feature of the gladius was that it lacked any blood runnels to let in air (Matyszak, 2009, 64). Therefore the sword had to be viciously twisted to release it. This origin...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Tables
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: The Roman Military in the Republic and Empire
• Chapter 2: Britain in the Late Iron Age
• Chapter 3: Julius Caesar and Britain
• Chapter 4: The Claudian Invasion of Britain
• Chapter 5: Early Conquest Campaigns AD 43–AD 61
• Chapter 6: Later Conquest Campaigns AD 62–AD 193
• Chapter 7: Septimius Severus in Scotland
• Chapter 8: Later Campaigns in the Far North
• Conclusion
• Timeline of Roman Britain
• List of References and Bibliography
• Plates Section 1
• Plates Section 2