The Muslim Majority

Folk Islam and the Seventy Percent

Robin Hadaway

• Publisher: B&H Academic
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781462745586
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Christian Ministry

More than 70 percent of Muslims worldwide practice folk Islam, a syncretistic mix of theologically orthodox Islam and traditional religious beliefs and practices. The Muslim Majority is unlike many published works on evangelism to Muslims, which argue for either apologetic or contextualized “bridge” approaches. These approaches are often ineffective in reaching adherents of popular Islam. Instead, author and missiologist Robin Hadaway outlines a contextual approach that addresses the unique perspective of popular Islam. Hadaway explains the differences between folk Is­lam and orthodox Islam and explores best practices for reaching the vast majority of Muslims with the gospel of Jesus Christ.
 

1

Folk Islam and Islamic Orthodoxy

When my wife and I arrived in Nairobi, Kenya in 1984 to study Swahili in preparation for serving as missionaries in Tanzania, part of our training included visiting different mosques. I soon learned there were Sunni, Shia, Sufi, and Aga Khan mosques represented in our city. Furthermore, I noticed that Muslims of Indian descent frequented some of the mosques, while others were populated largely by Somalis. I had no idea there were so many different sects within Islam.

Introduction

The subject of Islam is so vast that a complete study of the religion represents a daunting challenge. One researcher suggests that Muslims fall into one of nine classifications. Although not exhaustive, Joshua Massey divides Islam into the following categories:

1. Nominal Muslims: Muslims in name only, who only go to the mosque on eid (a major Islamic holiday) once or twice a year.42
2. Fringe Muslims: These Muslims, often urban youth, are infatuated with Western culture . . . Some are disappointed with their religious leaders, who, they believe, are living in the past and not taking advantage of all that modernity offers.
3. Liberal left-wing Muslims: These are open-minded Muslims who are not intimidated by conservative Islamic fundamentalists. They are often well educated and financially well off.
4. Conservative right-wing Muslims:43 [These tend to support dictatorial military rulers as well as strict Islam]. . . .
5. Ultra-orthodox Muslims: Islamic reformist movements, like the Wahhabis (called “the Protestants of Islam”), frown on what has become of Islam throughout the world today: a mix of Qur’anic observance with superstitions, sacred shrines, richly ornamented tombs, divination, omens, and excessive reverence of Muhammad.
6. Modern Muslims: These have successfully integrated Western technology with Islamic devotion and are proud to be part of a global Islamic community.
7. Mystical44 Muslims: Sufis and folk Muslims who, according to Wahhabis and conservative right-wing Muslims, are desperately in need of serious reform.
8. Communistic Muslims: In some parts of Central Asia and other former communist lands, Islamic identity has been almost completely stripped away.
9. Rice Muslims: Some poor animistic tribes of sub-Saharan Africa or low Hindu castes of South Asia convert to Islam for material benefit or economic convenience.45

This book concentrates on the folk Islam described in category 7 on Massey’s list. Folk Islam represents the beliefs and practices of the majority46 of Muslims in the world today.47 Massey places both Sufis (Islamic mystics) and folk Muslims (those who practice superstitions, divination, etc.) under the category of “mystical Muslims.” I suggest that folk Muslims should be the broader classification, and Sufis a subset. While many Sufis are folk Muslims, not all folk Muslims can be termed mystical. Of course, some Sufis are not mystical either but consider themselves Sufis by heritage and not by practice. Many folk Muslims have more in common with traditional religions than mysticism. Sufism will be examined more closely in chapter 3.

There are two principle adherents to popular Islam: (1) Sufi folk Muslims and (2) traditional religion folk Muslims.48 Folk Islam and theological (orthodox) Islam differ substantially. Aside from the obvious unorthodox practices, folk Muslims appear to possess a totally different mindset from their orthodox counterparts.

Orthodox, Official, or High Islam

A baseline for orthodoxy must be established in order to understand how far popular Islam has deviated from the traditional orthodox Muslim religion. As the custodians of the holy cities and places of worship, many Muslims believe the Saudi religious authorities reflect the faith’s orthodox form.49

The Beliefs of Orthodox Islam

The Islamic Affairs Department of the Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Washington, DC. published a book that explains the Muslim faith to English speakers in North America, titled Understanding Islam and the Muslims. The book summarizes Islamic orthodoxy from the official Sunni Saudi perspective:

What do Muslims believe? Muslims believe in One, Unique, Incomparable God; in the Angels created by Him; in the prophets through whom His revelations were brought to mankind; in the Day of Judgment and individual accountability for actions; in God’s complete authority over human destiny and in life after death.

Muslims believe in a chain of prophets starting with Adam and including Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Aaron, David, Solomon, Elias, Jonah, John the Baptist, and Jesus, peace be upon them. But God’s final message to man, a reconfirmation of the eternal message and a summing-up of all that has gone before was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, through Gabriel.

How does someone become a Muslim? Simply by saying “there is no god apart from God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God.” By this declaration the believer announces his or her faith in all God’s messengers, and the scriptures they brought.

What does “Islam” mean? The Arabic word “Islam” simply means “submission,” and derives from a word meaning “peace.” In a religious context it means complete submission to the will of God.50

Muslims believe every person is originally born a Muslim.51 If someone is an unbeliever it is because the unbeliever’s parents influenced them to leave Islam and embrace a false faith.52 There are many beliefs and practices important to Muslims, but Understanding Islam summarizes the core principles of orthodox Islam as the Five Pillars of Islam:

What are the “Five Pillars” of Islam? They are the framework of the Muslim life: faith, prayer, concern for the needy, self-purification, and the pilgrimage to Makkah for those who are able.53

1. FAITH. There is no god worthy of worship except God and Muhammad is His messenger. This declaration of faith is called the Shahada, a simple formula which all the faithful pronounce. . . .
2. PRAYER. Salat is the name for the obligatory prayers which are performed five times a day, and are a direct link between the worshipper and God. There is no hierarchical authority in Islam, and no priests, so the prayers are led by a learned person who knows the Quran, chosen by the congregation. . . .
3. THE “ZAKAT.” . . . The word zakat means both “purification” and “growth.”. . .54
   Each Muslim calculates his or her own zakat [offering] individually. For most purposes this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one’s capital. . . .
4. THE FAST. Every year in the month of Ramadan, all Muslims fast from first light until sundown, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations. . . .
   Although the fast is most beneficial to the health, it is regarded primarily as a method of self-purification. . . .
5. PILGRIMAGE (Hajj). The annual pilgrimage to Makkah—the Hajj—is an obligation only for those who are physically and financially able to perform it. . . .

The rites of the Hajj, which are of Abrahamic origin, include circling the Ka’ba seven times, and going seven times between the mountains of Safa and Marwa as did Hagar during her search for water.55

The impor...

Table of contents

• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Abbreviations
• Glossary
• Introduction
• 1. Folk Islam and Islamic Orthodoxy
• 2. Folk Islam and Sunni Muslims
• 3. Folk Islam and Shiite Muslims
• 4. Sufi Islam and Folk Islam
• 5. The Origins of Folk Islam: Traditional Religion
• 6. Traditional Religion’s Influence on Popular Islam
• 7. The History of Evangelizing Muslims
• 8. Contextualizing to Orthodox and Folk Islam
• 9. Contextualizing to the Worldviews of Folk Islam
• 10. Contextualizing to the Worldview of Sufi Folk Islam
• Conclusion
• Appendix 1
• Appendix 2
• Appendix 3
• Bibliography (Sources Cited)
• Name Index
• Subject Index
• Scripture Index