Avian Medicine

Jaime Samour

• Publisher: Mosby Ltd.
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9780723439554
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Veterinary Medicine

Combining the in-depth coverage of a text with the practicality of a clinical manual and the visual detail of an atlas, Avian Medicine, 3rd Edition is the complete, all-in-one guide to every aspect of avian care. Written by some of the world's leading authorities in avian medicine, this highly illustrated reference covers a wide variety of avian species —including psittacines, raptors, bustards, parrots, finches, and more. Comprehensive coverage includes issues ranging from the basic aspects of patient management to the most sophisticated diagnostic techniques. Plus, with more illustrations, a wealth of practical advice, and the latest information on cutting-edge treatments and procedures incorporated into this new edition, today's general clinician will be fully equipped to effectively and confidently care for all birds.

• Comprehensive coverage of all aspects of clinical management written by leading experts in the field provides readers with a depth and breadth of knowledge on avian medicine and care.
• Coverage of a wide variety of species — including raptors, bustards, and many others — enables practitioners to treat a greater assortment of patients with more confidence and skill.
• Bulleted text and tables help present information in an accessible way.
• More than 900 color images give readers a better picture of disease and how it will be encountered in practice.
• Appendices bring together wide-ranging data on hematology and blood chemistry reference values, commonly used pharmaceutics and other information relevant to avian practitioners.

• NEW! New chapter sections, revised references, and updated suggested readings ensure that readers have the most up-to-date information.
• NEW! New chapter contributors ensure the information in the text reflects the most current techniques and advances.
• NEW! Expanded content on parrots, finches and fruit-eating birds has been added to the text to make content more relevant to the needs of today's practitioners.
• NEW! Thoroughly updated content includes the latest surgical techniques and procedures to keep practitioners on top of the most cutting-edge information in the field.
• NEW! Additional content and images on MRI have been incorporated throughout the text to complete the coverage of other advanced imaging techniques such as CT scans.

1

Housing, Environment, and Public Awareness

Melodiya Nyela Magno

The fundamental needs of housing and the right environment for birds are not too different from that of humans. Housing for captive birds must provide protection from natural elements, changing weather, and natural predators; provide a sense of security; and must reflect a reasonable degree of sanitation. Most important, although commonly overlooked or ignored, is that the environment within the aviary or enclosure must encourage natural behavior including grooming, foraging, and breeding. Satisfying these fundamental needs promotes the health and well-being of birds, thus maximizing their quality of life in captivity (Fig. 1-1).

FIGURE 1-1 Places with consistently good weather such as in the tropics, do not require indoor facilities to keep the birds from harsh cold temperature, unlike in temperate regions.

Cage and Aviary Design

When designing an aviary for any species of bird, aviculturists commonly encounter conflicting views ranging from promoting the esthetic aspect of the aviary, promoting the health and well-being of the bird, and providing a functional design that allows adequate cleaning and maintenance (Fig. 1-2). However, birds can also adapt to the aviary setup provided by the keeper. Arboreal or tree-dwelling species that descend occasionally to the ground to drink or bathe, such as the green turaco (Turaco persa), can be seen consistently roosting on a 1-meter high perch in the absence of a tall tree or a very high perch (Fig. 1-3). Birds unable to adapt to a new and unsecured environment eventually develop signs of stress and chronic diseases and may even die. Indications of stress range from feather plucking (e.g., psittacine species), stereotypical behavior, nervousness, and immune suppression. Excessive aggression related to overcrowding and space constraints can also be an issue of concern. An example of this was observed in a small flock of chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) reported to have individuals displaying torticollis and head tilting. Newcastle disease was initially suspected; however, this was a case of space constraint as aggressive individuals pecked on the lateral aspect of the head of companions leading to ear injury and impaired balancing ability.

FIGURE 1-2 A creative way of presenting owls' aviaries to the visiting public.

FIGURE 1-3 Arboreal (tree dwelling) species benefit from raised feeders and should not be fed on the ground.

The design and appearance of cages is important in zoological collections and bird parks. Ideally, the cage should be covered with black PVC-coated mesh or painted black to achieve a “see-through effect,” making the interior of the cage stand out and more obvious to viewers (Fig. 1-4).

FIGURE 1-4 Painting the cage mesh black creates a “see-through” effect, making the interior of the cage stand out and more visible from a distance compared with an aviary with unpainted mesh. Note the difference between the aviary in the back with its mesh painted black with the one in the front.

Providing a great degree of freedom is one of the common goals in designing an aviary. This can be achieved by constructing large landscaped aviaries. However, capturing birds housed in such large enclosures for regular health checks and prophylaxis can be a challenge and heightens the risk for injury. In the process of pursuit and capture, birds could suffer injuries such as neck dislocations and wing or leg fractures. This is particularly important in species with long necks and legs (e.g., flamingos, storks, cranes). Birds may even escape from an open aviary by jumping or flying over fenced enclosures, making capture difficult.

The type of materials used in constructing aviary and aviary furniture is important. Newly installed galvanized wire may predispose psittacine birds to zinc toxicosis because they instinctively cling to cage mesh using their beaks. Washing and brushing down newly installed mesh using vinegar before transferring the birds helps minimize such cases (Fig. 1-5). Small cages can also be constructed with temporary sliding partitions that can be removed gradually to join two adjacent cages and increase the space. Aviaries should be constructed taking into consideration adequate exposure to the sun and minimizing direct strong wind.

FIGURE 1-5 Breeding aviary for a captive breeding program. Well-designed and strongly built aviaries are required to house medium to large psittacines in captivity. It is recommended to brush the mesh of newly built aviaries with a solution of vinegar to avoid zinc toxicosis.

Aviary design must incorporate the needs of the species housed. Cold moist conditions can be detrimental to desert species and hot conditions may cause problems for species from temperate and cold climates. Excessively cold conditions are involved in wing-tip edema syndrome of raptors and in toe frostbite for flamingoes. Translucent panels should be used to allow natural light exposure if enclosures are totally covered (e.g., seclusion). Alternatively, suitable artificial lighting should be provided.

In hot climates, birds must be kept cool. In the Middle East, outdoor falcon aviaries often have water-cooling systems at both ends and fans placed outside to directly cool air to the main perches. Most of the birds cool off by bathing and then sitting near the fan. Many bird species require indoor air-conditioning accommodation during the hotter months of the year (June to September).

Clean air is essential for the welfare of captive birds and keepers alike. Poor ventilation predisposes birds to respiratory infections and is considered a major contributory factor in the development of aspergillosis in falcons.

One of the major problems with raptors in captivity is the development of bumblefoot (pododermatitis). The cause of this is multifactorial, but the type of perch is critical. Perches covered with AstroTurf or coconut matting are ideal. A choice of perches with different diameters should be provided for all species of birds that perch, especially passerines.

In bird species such as Psittaciformes, digit and pedal injuries can be minimized by constructing double-walled partitions between aviaries distanced by a small gap to prevent bites by neighboring birds. For birds frequently staying on the ground, such as gallinaceous and anseriform species, foot injuries can be avoided by providing soft substrate such as sand and soil instead of concrete floors. The use of mats as flooring can be dangerous for species that habitually peck on the ground, such as ratites, and can lead to foreign-body obstruction of the gastrointestinal tract.

Cage and Aviary Management

Eager aviculturists must realize that the moment they decide to house a bird, a creature with a great urge for freedom, in an aviary or cage, they must take full stewardship over its environment (Fig. 1-6). Essentially, the aviculturist must realize that a cage or an aviary is a controlled environment. The degree of control over this closed environment dictates the extent and gravity of health conditions that would arise throughout the captive life of a bird.

FIGURE 1-6 Close proximity of the perch to the nest is important. It allows more activity and interaction near the nest as the male tries to attract the female for nesting.

At the very start of aviary planning and construction, a proactive approach must be made by creating a setup that reinforces efficient cleaning and maintenance of the aviary. This begins with the selection of appropriate construction material because this can dictate the degree of sanitation that is required and feasible. Wood and other porous materials retain contamination and are difficult to sanitize. Gravel and sand floor substrate can be more challenging to sanitize compared with a concrete floor. The design of the ground of the aviary should ensure that the flooring is leveled and prevents stagnation of water after raining or cleaning because this could predispose birds to drinking contaminated water. However, the aviculturist must not construct a sterile aviary that is easy to clean and disinfect, but that is uninteresting and boring for the birds.

Feeding birds in captivity entails the provision of a variety of food items, optimal food quality, adequate food hygiene, and an efficient feeding strategy. It is important to provide the critical nutrients specific for the species in the collection. Pesquet parrots (Psittrichas fulgidus), for instance, require a diet that is high in vitamin A and fiber; otherwise, they succumb more easily to candidiasis. Food hygiene can be achieved by observing a good hand-washing routine and implementing adequate sanitation practices in the food preparation area. Applying the appropriate feeding strategies is very important to fulfill the nutritional requirements of individuals (Fig. 1-7). This could involve effective food presentation and setting up feeding stations at strategic locations, which can be achieved by first observing the behavior of individuals within a flock establishing a particular territory or a favorite roosting site within the enclosure. The latter should be the basis of both the location for the feeding stations and the number of feeding stations to be provided. When dealing with a flock, not all individuals come regularly to a central feeding station to feed. Keeping staff should expect that some individuals fear the more aggressive individuals and wait for them to finish feeding, ending up consuming the contaminated leftovers. In carnivorous species housed in groups, this entails a simple feeding strategy of providing an adequate food level; otherwise, cannibalism would occur.

FIGURE 1-7 Food presentation is very important...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title Page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Dedications
• Contributors
• Foreword
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• 1 Housing, Environment, and Public Awareness
• 2 Avian Intelligence, Clinical Behavior, and Welfare
• 3 Nutrition and Nutritional Management
• 4 Capture and Handling
• 5 The Clinical Examination
• 6 Clinical and Laboratory Diagnostic Examination
• 7 Anesthesia and Analgesia
• 8 Medical, Nursing, and Cosmetic Procedures
• 9 Trauma-Related Medical Conditions
• 10 Management-Related Medical Conditions
• 11 Soft Tissue Surgery
• 12 Orthopedic Surgery
• 13 Systemic Diseases
• 14 Infectious Diseases
• 15 Reproduction
• 16 Postmortem Examination
• 17 Forensic Investigations in Avian Medicine
• Appendix 1 Hematology Reference Values Table for Selected Avian Species
• Appendix 2 Blood Chemistry Reference Values for Selected Avian Species
• Appendix 3 Selected Avian Literature
• Appendix 4 Legislation and Codes of Practice Relevant to Avian Medicine
• Appendix 5 Organizations and Electronic Resources Relating to Avian Medicine
• Appendix 6 Pharmaceutical Products Commonly Used in Avian Medicine
• Index