Culture and Psychological Development

Dabie Nabuzoka, Janet Empson

• Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
• Year: 2009
• ISBN:
  9781350312265
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psicologia
• Subtopic: Psicologia dello sviluppo

From infancy through to school age and beyond, most children are in constant contact with an array of social influences. Home life, education, community and the media all have some part to play in a child's development. In this absorbing book, the authors discuss the ways such diverse cultural settings impact on behaviour and how children are shaped by the world around them. They examine development from both a cultural and cross-cultural perspective, drawing on case studies, to illuminate theoretical insights. Students of both developmental and cultural psychology will find this to be the perfect starting point from which to investigate this fascinating topic further.

Culture’s Influence on Psychological Development Dabie Nabuzoka

1

OUTLINE

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Child development in various contexts

1.1.2 Understanding human development in cultural context

1.2 Socialization of children and developmental outcomes

1.2.1 Childrearing as socialization

1.2.2 Development of knowledge and understanding of the world

1.2.3 Language and social-cognitive development

1.2.4 Development of cultural identity

1.3 Summary and conclusions

Further reading

References

1.1 Introduction

All societies nurture and train their young to become responsible adults who will in turn bring up children of their own. The concern for the welfare of young people is universal in that it applies to all societies irrespective of geographical location. However, the practices involved in nurturing and bringing up children vary in different parts of the world. These practices would have been developed over a long period and become a part of a society’s way of life. More significantly, each practice would have developed as a specific way of responding to the particular demands for survival of a given society. So, the experience of childhood is also likely to vary across different societies. But how significant are such differences in the experiences of children across the world? What are their effects on the developing individual? How can we learn about such experiences and their effects on the developing child? Why is it important that we learn more about these experiences? This book addresses these questions from a number of perspectives. In this chapter, I will first outline some of the areas relevant to these questions and some of the efforts made in addressing them. Subsequent chapters illustrate in more depth some of the key issues in the psychological development of children in different cultural contexts.

1.1.1 Child development in various contexts

Let us start with the question of why it is important to learn about the experiences of childhood in various contexts. Over the years, the study of child development that has given rise to dominant theories in psychology has been largely confined to children in North America, Europe and other Western countries who comprise less than 10 per cent of the world’s children. The majority of the world’s children grow up in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Pacific where conditions under which they grow up differ dramatically from those that have informed developmental theories. Recognition of the diversity of environments in which children develop all over the world has led us to question what implications there may be for children’s psychological development. There are also questions as to whether psychological theories developed in contexts far removed from those of the majority of children can throw any light on the nature of child development in general. It has also been argued that the database for the development of such theories may have even been further limited to the subcultures of middle-class children in Western societies.

It is now generally accepted that the context of child development has a profound effect on developmental outcomes, and that there is a reciprocal relationship between the child and his/her environment. Such effects are perhaps much easier to demonstrate in relation to how variations in physical growth are associated with the child’s environment, especially the availability of resources. For example, extreme deprivation of nutrients in early childhood can lead to stunted physical growth. Similarly, in the social domain, lack of social stimulation can lead to limited social responsiveness in infants, which may lead to difficulties in relating to others later on in life. Yet, the particular ways in which such needs for physical and social development are met differ across the world and even between subcultures of the same society. So there has recently been a developing interest in documenting how childhood experiences may differ among peoples of the world, and how variations in child-rearing practices from one population to another may be significant for children’s development and our understanding of it. The attitudes, beliefs and other factors which influence the practices are also of significance.

With globalization people all over the world are increasing their contact with members of other cultures and understanding the differences between them is becoming increasingly relevant to governments, international agencies, professionals and businesses. Within a particular society today, there are typically many cultures and subcultures and these are constituted on the basis of income, ethnicity, religion, and so on. Minority groups in multicultural societies may use different child-rearing practices to those of the dominant group and their appropriateness may be questioned by those not familiar with that particular culture. It is important for developmental psychologists to understand what gives rise to differing practices and psychological outcomes associated with them. In this chapter, I will outline some of the general areas and issues that have been of particular interest to developmental psychologists. Subsequent chapters provide further discussions of the issues raised with more specific examples and research evidence.

1.1.2 Approaches to understanding human development in cultural context

The initial question is how best to study the influence of culture on psychological development. This has been a subject of some debate in psychology, with various psychological models and theories being generated about the nature of human development, and of the role of cultural factors in such a process (van der Vijver and Poortinga, 2002; see also Chapter 2). These models or theories have guided research efforts in different parts of the world. One approach, known as cross-cultural psychology, has focused on testing the generality of existing psychological knowledge and theories to different societies (Berry, Poortinga, Segall and Dasen, 2002). The aim of this approach has been to try to explore and discover psychological variations in different cultures and to generate a nearly universal psychology valid for a broader range of cultures (Brislin, 1990). Such efforts have focused on comparing whether phenomena observed in one culture exist in another culture and the various ways in which it may be demonstrated.

Another approach emphasizes the view that associations between a society’s culture and the psychological development of its members need to be explicable in terms of the mechanisms or processes mediating these. In other words, we need to understand how possibly causal relationships occur over time whereby developmental outcomes differ for children growing up in different cultural contexts. This approach, known as cultural psychology, aims at understanding the significance of certain practices in a given culture (Lamb, Sternberg, Hwang and Broberg (1992). What is of concern in this respect is to address such questions as to why people of a given culture may act in a particular way in given situations. Here interest is on the meanings associated with particular practices, and which provide the context for children’s development (Göncü, 1999).

The approach of cultural psychology is also different from that of cross-cultural (comparative) psychology in that it considers culture in terms of the creation of an environment in which children (as young organisms) are provided conditions for optimal growth. Thus, culture is regarded as a medium for development (Cole, 1992). The approach of cross-cultural psychology, however, is more about the relationship between behaviour and elements of culture (e.g., socialization, ecological features, etc.). Thus in this approach, identifying cross-cultural differences can amount to identifying cultural elements behind the differences (Segall, 1984).

The two approaches are however not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, the study of culture as a medium for child development does not preclude cultural comparisons. However, a discussion of the role of culture in development is essentially concerned with the role of the environment as, for example, represented by Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model. This model regards the developing child as being exposed to a network of influences. Another theoretical framework for studying cultural regulation of the micro-environment of the child is the concept of the developmental niche (Super and Harkness, 1986). This concept tries to describe the environment ‘from the point of view of the child in order to understand processes of development and acquisition of culture’ (Super and Harkness, 1986, p. 552). The developmental niche is said to have three components: the physical and social environment in which the child lives; the customs of childcare and childrearing representing the practices that are employed in looking after the young; and the belief systems as to the efficacy of such practices or the nature of child development. These models, as discussed further in Chapter 2, focus on structural components of the environment (social and physical) that define a child’s experiences. Arguably, features of these could be amenable to cultural comparisons.

Another approach discussed in some more detail in Chapter 2 focuses on conceptual frameworks that best describe and explain both the child’s experiences and the course of their development. Such is the concern of what has been termed ‘indigenous psychologies’. This perspective holds that explanations of child development can only make sense with reference to the conditions or society in which they arise. The theories that inform socialization practices that are held intuitively by agents of such practices such as parents can be considered to contribute to an indigenous psychology.

1.2 Socialization of children and developmental outcomes

1.2.1 Childrearing as socialization

The practices of child nurturance and upbringing constitute the socialization of the young for them to acquire those skills and behavioural characteristics that will make them useful members of their society. Socialization has been defined as ‘the process by which children acquire the beliefs, values and behaviours deemed significant and appropriate by older members of their society’ (Shaffer, 1999, p. 558). According to Shaffer (1999), socialization of the young serves society in a number of ways: First, it is a means of regulating children’s behaviour and controlling undesirable or antisocial impulses; second, it promotes personal growth of the individual as it enables children to acquire the knowledge, skills, motives, and aspirations that enable them to adapt to their environment and function effectively in their communities; and third, it perpetuates the social order in that children become competent, adaptive, pro-social adults who will in turn impart what they have learned to their own children.

There are cultural differences in child-rearing values, beliefs and goals. Thus, parents and other caregivers foster behavioural capacities in their children that maximize their cultural values (LeVine, 1974). Different cultures provide various ways in which child- rearing practices socialize children for adult life (Whiting and Edwards, 1992). Socialization practices in various cultures have been studied from various perspectives. These studies have focused on cultural differences in such areas as infant care, autonomy, discipline and attachment behaviour. Other research, especially within subcultures of a given society, has focused on specific parenting styles and psychological outcomes in the offspring. More recent research has focused broadly on environmental and contextual factors as determinants of parenting goals and practices (Javo, Rønning and Heyerdahl, 2004). One such factor, social class (now more usually termed socio- economic status), has traditionally been identified as a primary social influence on parenting, accounting for significant variance in beliefs and behaviour patterns within a given society (see Chapter 4). Other studies have identified ethnic factors also as important determinants. When social class has been statistically controlled, significant ethnic differences in childrearing can still be identified in cross-cultural studies. Thus, parental child-rearing attitudes may be inculcated through an interaction of ethnic culture, experiences representative of particular socio-economic groups and other environmental factors.

The focus on child-rearing practices and psychological outcomes in the offspring has lead to studies which have sought to explain cultural variations in expressive behaviour in relation to those child-rearing practices. Thus, aspects of childrearing at a given point in the lives of children have been linked to psychological outcomes in adulthood (Harkness and Super, 1983). One dimension of social-psychological functioning with antecedents thought to be in child-rearing practices has been the individualism-collectivism (I-C) construct. This construct is associated with differing values in different societies, which inform social behaviour in different ways and at various levels. Thus, attributes of individualism and collectivism relate to social values and are reflected in social-psychological functioning. For example, a defining difference has been identified as lying in a basic concern for oneself (individua...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Notes on Contributors
• Epigraph
• Introduction and Guide to the Book
• 1 Culture’s Influence on Psychological Development
• 2 Approaches to Studying Human Development in Diverse Cultures
• 3 Child-Rearing Goals and Practices
• 4 Social Disadvantage and Child Development
• 5 Culture and Cognitive Development
• 6 Language and Psychological Development
• 7 The Development of Cultural and Ethnic Identity
• 8 Culture in Applied Developmental Psychology
• Glossary
• Author Index
• Subject Index