Protected Areas and Tourism in Southern Africa

Conservation Goals and Community Livelihoods

Lesego Senyana Stone, Moren Tibabo Stone, Patricia Kefilwe Mogomotsi, Goemeone E.J. Mogomotsi, Lesego Senyana Stone, Moren Tibabo Stone, Patricia Kefilwe Mogomotsi, Goemeone E.J. Mogomotsi

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2022
• ISBN:
  9781000548983
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Economics
• Subtopic: Sustainable Development
• Index: Economics

This volume discusses the complex relationship between Protected Areas and tourism and their impact on community livelihoods in a range of countries in Southern Africa.

Protected areas and tourism have an enduring and symbiotic relationship. While protected areas offer a desirable setting for tourism products, tourism provides revenue that can contribute to conservation efforts. This can bring benefits to local communities, but it can also have a negative impact, with the establishment of protected areas leading to the eviction of local communities from their original places of residence, while also preventing them from accessing the natural resources they once enjoyed. Taking a multi-disciplinary approach, this book addresses the opportunities and challenges faced by communities and other stakeholders as they endeavour to achieve their conservation goals and work towards improving community livelihoods. Case studies from Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe address key issues such as human–wildlife conflicts, ecotourism, wildlife-based tourism, landscape governance, wildlife crop-raiding and trophy hunting, including the high-profile case of Cecil the lion. Chapters highlight both the achievements and positive outcomes of protected areas, but also the challenges faced and their impact on how protected areas are viewed and also conservation priorities more generally. The volume gives these issues affecting protected areas, local communities, managers and international conservation efforts centre stage in order inform policy and improve practice going forward.

This book will be of great interest to students and scholars of conservation, natural resource management, tourism, sustainable development and African studies, as well as professionals and policymakers involved in conservation policy.

1Protected areas and tourism dynamics in Southern AfricaAn overview

Moren Tibabo Stone, Lesego Senyana Stone, Goemeone E. J. and Mogomotsi Patricia Kefilwe Mogomotsi

DOI: 10.4324/9781003193166-1

The conservation and development nexus debate is still ongoing, regardless of research, projects and policy developments that have been undertaken to guide and reconcile the discourse. The ongoing search for solutions that can balance the discourse demonstrates that the conservation and development debate is still open for more research, practical project trials and policy instruments to test those endeavours and bridge the knowledge gap between development plans/strategies and practice. This book came into existence to join debates on the discourse to contribute to this open dialogue. The book is centred on protected areas (PAs) and tourism with a focus on the Southern African region, the emphasis being on conservation goals and community livelihoods. In this book we explore the extent to which conservation and development goals are being met in the Southern African protected region, and outline ways in which performance can be improved.

To provide the conceptual and contextual setting of the book, we give an overview of PAs and tourism dynamic trajectories in Africa, revealing achievements and challenges. While some PAs are excelling, others face significant challenges in their roles as biodiversity hosts and in improving community livelihoods through tourism development. Linkages between PAs and community livelihoods (through tourism development) are inseparable, hence the understanding of their complex relationship has drawn global attention in the twenty-first century (Stone & Nyaupane, 2016). Ever since PAs moved from exclusionary (i.e. fortress conservation) to inclusive approaches (i.e. all-encompassing) that accommodate and involve communities as partners in conservation, conservation–development linkages and dynamics have produced complex relationships (Nyaupane & Poudel, 2011). The complex relationship emanates mainly from the unintended consequences that may not be consistent with conservation and development objectives (Stone et al., 2020a). As demonstrated by different chapters in this volume, while to some extent PAs achieve their conservation and development nexus objectives, loss of biodiversity is still taking place, even though efforts are in place to thwart this. For instance, a recent report by the United Nations warns about the unprecedented loss of biodiversity, including an 82% decline in the biomass of wild mammals since 1970 (Diaz et al., 2019). Equally, evidence shows that some communities have failed to improve their livelihoods even though they have implemented tourism projects that tap the biodiversity hosted by PAs. Stone et al. (2020b) report that, although the need for community involvement in protected areas-based tourism is extensively supported in the literature, many such projects operate below optimal levels. Some reasons for the failure of PAs in fulfilling their conservation and community development roles point to different trajectories (see Balmford et al., 2015; Stone & Stone, 2020b; Birendra, 2021).

Protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods

From inception, PAs were envisaged to conserve iconic landscapes and wildlife (Watson et al., 2014). However, in the past few decades, PAs have undergone pronounced expansions geographically and conceptually (Diaz et al., 2019). Created not only to conserve iconic landscapes and seascapes and to provide habitats for endangered wildlife, PAs also contribute to the livelihood of local communities, bolster national economies through tourism revenues, replenish fisheries and play a key part in the mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, among many other functions (Dudley & Stolton, 2010). PAs are now expected to promote conservation as well as social and economic objectives. It is not only their functions that have been expanded, but also expectations placed on them by a growing number of diverse stakeholders have dramatically increased (Dudley & Stolton, 2010). These new demands are in addition to, rather than a replacement for earlier motivations (i.e. mainly for conservation); the numerous functions have contributed to a prevalence of trade-offs between competing objectives (White et al., 2012). These expected multi-functional dynamics of PAs contribute to the complex intended and unintended relationship outcomes. Hence, Dudley and Stolton (2010) argue that PAs are constantly changing focus, making them susceptible to failures in their quest to achieve one or more of these objectives.

Although many PAs were set up with the dual mandate of landscape and species protection and public use, it was not until the mid-twentieth century that tourism inside PAs was accelerated (Zeiger et al., 1992) and proved to be economically viable. Therefore, many regions around the world, including Southern Africa, rely on PAs not just to uphold conservation, but also for economic development through tourism. Balmford et al. (2015) estimated that worldwide, 94,238 terrestrial PAs received 8 billion visits annually, generating in-country direct expenditures of approximately US$ 600 billion. This signifies that PAs have the potential to generate revenue that enables development while simultaneously promoting conservation efforts. However, PA conservation and development debates are never-ending. Furthermore, maintaining a balance between conservation and development in PAs is challenging, hence this volume of edited chapters was initiated to contribute to knowledge on this discourse. This idea of promoting biodiversity conservation through PAs and combining that with an economic development model (tourism) has been implemented in many places at varying scales (Birendra, 2021). The increased popularity of PA tourism is well documented in the literature (Das & Chatterjee, 2015; Kim & Park, 2017; Mehmetoglu & Normann, 2013; Stone & Nyaupane, 2016; Stone & Stone, 2020a) but comprehensive statistics on PA tourism are limited, especially economic statistics.

While PA tourism may contribute to both economic development and conservation in Southern Africa, the outcomes from specific PAs are likely to vary based on geographical location, management structures in place and approaches to resource governance (Birendra, 2021). Given this knowledge gap, this volume is geared towards bringing together research work carried out in the Southern Africa region and amalgamating it into one volume with a view to build an understanding and fostering research knowledge and ideas that might provide mechanisms for resolving uncertainties; providing tools for effective decision-making, generating means for getting necessary but fragmented work together to foster joint management activities and for PA stakeholders to deal with challenges of the future.

Sustainability

The debate on PAs and the contribution of tourism to conservation and development is ongoing, facilitated by the lack of solutions in striking a balance between conservation and livelihood development sustenance. Tourism in PAs is advocated for because it has the potential to enhance global biodiversity conservation by providing alternative livelihood strategies for local people, and to alleviate poverty in and around PAs (Liu et al., 2012). Conservation success is often predicated on local support for conservation which is strongly influenced by local communities’ perceptions of impacts, management and governance issues (Bennett & Dearden, 2014). PAs serve different stakeholders. As a result, they have been exposed to many transformations, subjected to growing marketisation, experienced multiple competing uses, changing rural economies and technological advances (Nyaupane & Poudel, 2011), threatening their existential sustenance due to overstretching to accommodate a wide range of functions. For communities living within or around PAs, tourism performs multifaceted roles, including financial (Saayman & Saayman, 2006), non-financial, livelihood, empowerment and environmental services (Ashley & Elliot, 2003). Informed by the tenets of social exchange theory, literature commonly supports the view that communities will only support conservation if the benefits of living with natural resources outweigh costs (Mbaiwa & Stronza, 2011). Numerous studies have established that costs associated with conservation such as wildlife depredation of crops and livestock have negative impacts on local community attitudes, whereas benefits may have positive outcomes (Fiallo & Jacabson, 1995; Heinen, 1993; Walpole & Goodwin, 2001).

As a result, PAs are often considered sustainable if they offer more benefits than costs to their inhabitants and adjacent communities. However, ensuring that more benefits than costs are realised is often a difficult feat to achieve. This can make it difficult to justify the existence of PAs. According to Gossling et al. (2009), moving to more sustainable tourism in PAs is a very difficult task as it requires transformations of well-established and interlocking systems and social practices. Stone and Nyaupane (2016) argue that tourism is often managed with inadequate knowledge, particularly of the approaches in which the entire tourism system functions, and of the science that drives it. Furthermore, PAs, tourism and community livelihoods operate as a complex system, and the relationship contains a myriad of factors and activities that are interdependent (i.e. economic, social, environmental, cultural, political, human and policy factors) (Walker et al., 1998). Therefore, we should conceptualise PAs, tourism and livelihoods as a complex system, consisting of multiple interacting components. We can argue that, at one level, tourism in PAs can be a success given the concept’s diffusion among industry, government, academics and policy actors, while on the other, it can be a policy failure given the continued growth of negative environmental and social impacts.

Challenges

Despite making global commitments towards increasing the size and effectiveness of PAs within the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) framework (CBD, 2011), there is now significant evidence that some governments are sliding back on their commitments to support PAs. This has been shown through disproportionate funding cuts, reductions in professional staff and by ignoring their own policies (Dudley & Stolton, 2010). While the contribution of PAs to tourism development is in most cases measured by financial indicators, it should be noted that many of the benefits cannot be easily measured in monetary terms. The performance and contributions of PAs to conservation and development objectives should not be subjected to financial indicators alone, but to robust, multi-faceted frameworks and indicators. Furthermore, PAs now face over-tourism, other human-led threats (e.g. illegal hunting, mining, deforestation, fragmentations, alien invasive species, etc.), natural disasters and climate change (Birendra, 2021). These common threats to PAs, however, provide a basis for collaboration, building common ground to promote a shared goal and vision among PAs (Diaz et al., 2015). While human-led threats to PAs should not be overlooked, science has lagged behind in generating data that can inform intervention measures. For example, several tools have been developed based on the IUCN framework to assess the effectiveness of management in individual PAs (Birendra, 2021). However, there are no globally accepted measures with which to assess PAs and their management effectiveness (Chape et al., 2005). This has led to more instinctive management practices that potentially compromise the robustness and achievements of PA’s set goals (Birendra, 2021).

Outline of the volume

The diverse themes and viewpoints expressed in the chapters of this volume indicate that, although individual Southern African countries may struggle to have PAs optimally realise their full potential in performance, there is acknowledgement that PAs are central to the future of life on our planet, for both humans and wildlife.

This volume is divided into five parts: Part I provides an overview of the book, conceptualising and contextualising relationships between PAs, tourism, conservation goals and community livelihoods.

Part I, with the theme ‘Community-protected areas relations: impacts on local communities’ is made up of four chapters. Manatsha and Gumbo provide a historical analysis of PAs and tourism development experiences in Southern Africa. They discuss the Western models of wildlife conservation that influenced the development of PAs, They also discuss the preservation and conservation paradigm shifts and critique Western models of conservation that undermine traditional conservation methods. Ntuli and Muchapondwa discuss community perceptions of PAs and tourism, and how perceptions are increasingly being viewed as being important determinants for the success of conservation in Southern Africa. Their chapter establishes a consolidated theoretical framework for understanding community perceptions of PAs and tourism using Ostrom’s social-ecological systems as a conceptual framework to guide their chapter. They argue that it is important to understand how people consider the whole system in forming perceptions, and this in turn influences their attitudes and behaviour in their interactions with natural resources. Suluo and Anderson’s chapter examines ecotourism as a tool for improving conservation and communities’ livelihoods in the Southern African region. They emphasise that ecotourism in the region is still in its infancy, but demonstrate with evidence that ecotourism is instrumental in the improvement of natural and cultural conservation, while also enhancing the livelihoods of local communities. Nevertheless, they highlight that the sector faces challenges that range from the low capacity of local communities to exploit ecotourism opportunities, poor tourism infrastructure, poor linkages with other economic sectors and inadequate governance mechanisms. The last chapter in Part I is by Mutanga who discusses communities’ tolerance for wildlife resources through community wildlife-based tourism (CWBT). The chapter highlights that, while CWBT can generate revenue and provide other opportunities that increase tolerance for wildlife resources, CWBT programmes often face several obstacles that weaken communities’ tolerance for wildlife resources. The chapter ends with discussions on how obstacles that weaken communities’ tolerance for wildlife resources can be mitigated.

Part II, themed ‘protected areas, tourism and human–wildlife conflicts dynamics’ has four chapters. Van der Duim and Pellis explore and compare landscape-wide partnerships in Southern Africa by integrating literature on partnerships, governance, power and landscapes into a landscape governance perspective. Their analysis demonstrates that partnerships play prominent and complementary landscape governance roles. Furthermore, in practice, power relations play a decisive part in achieving these roles. The chapter further highlights that partnerships represent policy arenas where different interests are negotiated and there are trade-offs between conservation and development; between private, public and community interests; but also, differences between tourism and other sectoral practices are brought to the surface. La...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title Page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Acknowledgements
• List of abbreviations
• 1 Protected areas and tourism dynamics in Southern Africa: An overview
• Part I Community–PA relations: Impacts on local communities
• Part II Protected areas, tourism and human–wildlife conflicts dynamics
• Part III Managing the wildlife economy: Contemporary issues in Southern Africa
• Part IV Protected areas and tourism practices: Policy and practice
• Part V Conclusion
• Index