Bengal Muslims and Colonial Education, 1854–1947

A Study of Curriculum, Educational Institutions, and Communal Politics

Nilanjana Paul

• Publisher: Routledge India
• Year: 2022
• ISBN:
  9781000559231
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Indian & South Asian History
• Index: History

This book examines the impact of British education policies on the Muslims of Colonial Bengal. It evaluates the student composition and curriculum of various educational institutions for Muslims in Calcutta and Dacca to show how they produced the educated Muslim middle class. The author studies the role of Muslim leaders such as Abdul Latif and Fazlul Huq in the spread of education among Muslims and looks at how segregation in education supported by the British fueled Muslim anxiety and separatism. The book analyzes the conflict of interest between Hindus and Muslims over education and employment which strengthened growing Muslim solidarity and anti- Hindu feeling, eventually leading to the demand for a separate nation. It also discusses the experiences of Muslim women at Sakhawat Memorial School, Lady Brabourne College, Eden College, Calcutta, and Dacca Universities at a time when several Brahmo and Hindu schools did not admit them.

An important contribution to the study of colonial education in India, the book highlights the role of discriminatory colonial education policies and pedagogy in amplifying religious separatism. It will be useful for scholars and researchers of modern Indian history, religion, education, Partition studies, minority studies, imperialism, colonialism, and South Asian history.

Chapter 1 Conflict begins

DOI: 10.4324/9780429298134-2

In India we are suffering from this conflict between the spirit of the West and the Nation of the West. The benefit of the Western civilization is doled out to us in a miserly measure by the Nation trying to regulate the degree of nutrition as near the zero point of vitality as possible. The portion of education allotted to us is so raggedly insufficient that it ought to outrage the sense of decency of a Western humanity.¹

– Rabindranath Tagore, Nationalism, 1917

The conquest of Bengal in 1757 followed by an extended period of residency resulted in East India Company extending their rule over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in the late eighteenth century. East India Company’s early regime was extremely ambitious and powerful. They became virtual masters of Bengal and took upon themselves the charge of collecting revenues. In that context, the chapter starts by examining how British rule reshaped Indian education from an interest in old heritage, synthesis of Western and Indian culture to a complete suppression of vernacular languages that diminished the significance of indigenous education.²

Following Thomas Babington Macaulay’s (1800–1859) recommendations, William Bentinck (1774–1839) made English the language of the state in 1835. Consequently, the government provided little support for vernacular education, which catered to the needs of the masses. Even the Charles Wood’s Despatch of 1854, which aimed to spread mass education through vernacular languages, did not address the growing social and educational inequalities under colonial rule. Rather it popularized the study of English and increased the cost of education. Only upper middle class and middle class Hindu communities had access to institutionalized English education who did little for the spread of mass education as it impacted their own access to education.

This disparity in the access to English education had an adverse influence on the progress of both ashraf (elite) and non-ashraf (non-elite) Muslims as the colonial government no longer supported the study of Persian or even free schooling that previously existed. However, the situation changed after the Revolt of 1857, when loyalists like Abdul Latif, Justice Ameer Ali (1849–1928), and Syed Ahmad Khan helped in changing Muslim attitude towards the British. Elite Muslims popularized English education as they wanted them to be on the same platform as the Hindu bhadraloks.

To have a similar status like Hindu bhadraloks, Muslim loyalists demanded special support for denominational institutions like Calcutta and Dacca Madrassas. They opposed any anti-British activities among the poorer sections of the community and prescribed basic religious education for rural Muslims through a specialized Islamic language. The loyalists did not address the needs of Muslim mass education or even challenge the British government for limited resources. They used the opportunity to exploit the religious sentiments of rural Muslims to strengthen their demands for separate educational institutions, which they felt fulfilled their distinctive needs as a community. Using this chronological framework and broad historical debate, the first chapter shows how British turned education into a marketable commodity that produced indigenous loyalists who did little for the spread of mass education. Rather, inequality in education and competition over limited resources offered by the British started the communal strife between Hindus and Muslims.

The introduction of English

Warren Hastings (1732–1818), the first Governor-General of India, and William Jones (1746–1794) established Asiatic Society in 1784 where they promoted the study of Indian languages and cultural heritage. Along with Asiatic Society, Hastings established Calcutta Madrassa in 1780 and the Benaras Sanskrit College in 1792, which became centers of oriental education. Maulvi Mujeedudin supervised Calcutta Madrassa and Hastings contributed 625 rupees per month to maintain the institution. Initially, the institution was established near Bowbazar in Central Calcutta but then moved to Wellesley Square in 1823, predominantly a Muslim neighborhood. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891) praised Hastings for his effort to spread education among Indians.³ To quote him,

Before the rule of Lord Hastings, there was no attempt to educate the subjects. If the subjects remained sunk in the well of ignorance, there would not be any fear of the empire breaking up. Because of this, imparting education to these subjects had been considered as going against the politics of the rulers. But Lord Hastings ignoring this policy, said that English had taken over the rule of Bharatvarsha for the welfare of its citizen; therefore, it was the expedient duty of the English race to accomplish civilizing its subjects in every way. Owing to this command, schools began to be established in places immediately.⁴

Calcutta Madrassa (Figure 1.1) and the Benaras Sanskrit College trained company officials in Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit under the supervision of brahmins and maulvis (Muslim scholars studying Arabic). Under the patronage of the government, both institutions were portrayed as centers that strengthened the relationship between the rulers and the ruled by allowing company officials to be trained in the grammar of Hindu rituals and Islamic law. This attitude was confirmed by Jonathan Duncan, a resident of Benaras, in a letter to Governor-General Lord Cornwallis (1738–1805) on January 1, 1792, indicating that the Sanskrit College at Benaras predominantly improved the image of the British in the eyes of Hindus. Hindus will learn that the British were enthusiastic about their scriptures and philosophy. In short, both institutions were camouflaged as centers for “selfless pursuit of knowledge,”⁵ but company officials utilized the knowledge to come close to the ruling strata of the society, which further strengthened their control over Indian subjects. Later, Sanskrit College Calcutta established in 1824 also became the center of Sanskrit learning.⁶

Figure 1.1 Calcutta Madrassa

Source: Photograph by Ritaj Gupta

After Hastings’ departure, British policies changed and successive officials such as Charles Grant (1746–1823), John Malcolm (1769–1833), and Thomas Munro (1761–1827) established British supremacy over India and did away with the policy of accommodation. British cultural arrogance led them to impose their law and language over the subject population. Moreover, the Charter Act of 1813 mandated East India Company’s responsibility to educate Indians and allotted one lakh rupees to revive the study of literature and enhance scientific education among Indians. Subsequently, intense debates broke out over the mandate, which eventually ended in 1835 when Lord Macaulay and William Bentinck (1774–1839) passed a resolution for the cultivation of European languages and literature. This resolution made English, the official language of British India, and over time English became the medium of instruction in government schools.⁷

The shift to English education in 1835 disintegrated the traditional system of education and in 1837, Bentinck declared that the government would no longer spend any more money on buying Sanskrit and Persian texts. English became the language of power, privilege, and upward mobility. To the colonizers, the introduction of English represented the first step and method to control the subjects and reorganize the colonized society. Moreover, English education shaped the consciousness of the local ruling class. Anglicized education and substantial knowledge of English became the sign of middle class, culture, and civility.⁸

Impact of English education on colonial subjects

The beneficiaries of colonial rule were not a unitary group. The popularity of English coupled with Permanent Settlement of 1793 created the abhijato bhadraloks or the aristocrats. The self-styled aristocrats became natural allies of East India Company. They were enthusiastic about English education though they bitterly opposed social reforms. In other words, they wanted to be leaders of the community, imposing traditional rules. However, they never opposed British rule and established the Hindu (Presidency) College (Figure 1.2) in Calcutta in 1817, which was referred to as the “Oxford of the East.”⁹ The Hindu College provided instruction in English and European literature.¹⁰

Figure 1.2 Hindu College (Presidency College)

Source: British Library, Shelfmark: Photo 247/2 (54)

Below the abhijato bhadraloks, the maddyabitta sreni (middle class) or the petit bourgeoisie, which was drawn from diverse social groups, including clerks, doctors, lawyers, and teachers, were “the indispensable auxiliaries of the empire.”¹¹ They supported the introduction of English education. The following quote by Sibnath Sastri (1847–1919), the author of Ramtanu Lahiri o Tatkalin Bangasamaj, indicates the eagerness and the demand for English education among the middle class.

The venerable David Hare had got vexed by the requests and recommendations of those who sought admission in his school. Such anxiety was born among people to teach their respective sons English that it became difficult for Hare to step out of his house. If he stepped out, groups of boys would run after the palanquin, saying ‘me poor boy, have pity on me, me take in your school.¹²

The high demand for learning English was purely driven by pragmatic reasons. Acquisition of English helped in social and economic gains. Moreover, the knowledge of English distinguished the middle class from people who did not have access to English education or Western knowledge. Anglicized education and the knowledge of English became the symbol of middle class. To quote Himani Bannerji,

As the possession of land distinguished the landlord, and capital and commodities for sale the trader, so western edu...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of illustrations
• Acknowledgments
• Author’s note
• List of abbreviations
• Introduction
• 1 Conflict begins
• 2 Partition politics
• 3 Period of turmoil
• 4 Fazlul Huq in power
• 5 Women’s education
• Conclusion
• Appendix I
• Appendix II
• Bibliography
• Index