Anthologies constitute one of the most important ways to examine the histories of Black short fiction. These collections, which contain multiple modes of writing, shape as well as reinforce views of African American and American literature. Literary canons, as well-known anthologist M. H. Abrams describes it, consist of âauthors who, by cumulative consensus of critics, scholars, and teachers, have come to be widely recognized as âmajor,â and to have written works often hailed as literary classics.â1 He continues, âThe literary works by canonical authors are the ones which, at a given time, are most kept in print, most frequently and fully discussed by literary critics and historians, and most likely to be included in anthologies and in the syllabi of college courses.â Anthology editors provide a platform for keeping writers and literary works in circulation. At the same time, editors necessarily filter and exclude works.
Whereas Kinnamon focused solely on African American literature anthologies, a consideration of a variety of collections, including general primarily white anthologies and specialized books, reveals how stories appear in numerous kinds of collections. Editors of Harlem Renaissance collections highlight prominent and lesser-known works by writers of that particular era. Black womenâs collections such as Black-Eyed Susans/Midnight Birds: Stories by and about Black Women (1990) and Revolutionary Tales: African American Womenâs Short Stories, from the First Story to the Present (1995) include short story writers Ann Petry, Gayl Jones, Octavia E. Butler, Terry McMillan, and others who do not regularly appear in comprehensive Black or American collections. Ultimately, recognition of the multiple anthology types reveals the many contexts through which Black short fiction has circulated over several decades.
Editors of American literature anthologies accentuated the value of select Black writers by reprinting their stories more frequently than various other Black writers. African American collections presented a large group of Black writers, at least in comparison to American literature collections. African American Literature: An Anthology of Nonfiction, Fiction, Poetry, and DramaâVol. 2 (1993) reprints twenty short stories by Black writers, while Harper American Literature, Vol. 2 (1993) includes six stories. An analysis of short fiction presented in anthologies over the decades reveals that editors collectively constructed, solidified, and altered historical periods, thereby creating cohorts of writers, sometimes arbitrarily, organized around key themes and social concepts.
Projects in the field of African American literary studies increasingly concentrate on truncated time periods. However, we can learn much about canonical history by observing the transmission of literary works over nearly a century. We additionally gain an understanding of framing practices by taking a closer look at the work of editors, an important but often overlooked group of contributors to the transmission of African American literature. Quantifying reprints clarifies how editors shaped canonical histories. While conventional bibliographies remain important, we can further advance African American literary studies by taking advantage of datasets, which greatly assist in exploring and quantifying multifaceted publishing histories.
This chapter offers a look at African American literary history by analyzing a dataset of one hundred anthologies published between 1925 and 2017. The first section addresses how editors established seven Black writers as the most consequential anthologized short story writers. The second section explains the importance of womenâs anthologies for promoting short fiction by Black writers, especially during the 1990s. The third section explains how the tendency of editors to present Black writers along a chronological continuum contributed to the formation of distinct literary periods.
THE FORMATION OF THE BIG 7
There is no shortage of short fiction. In âThe Black Short Story Dataset,â there are a total of 632 unique short stories by 297 Black writers. There are hundreds, if not thousands, more stories that were never selected for inclusion in collections. Individual stories rarely appear in three or more collections. In fact, only fourteen individual stories appear in ten or more anthologies. Chesnutt, Hurston, Wright, Ellison, Baldwin, Bambara, and Walker wrote twelve of those fourteen stories.3
These writersâthe Big 7âare outliers for four main reasons. For one, their stories appear more frequently than 290 other short story writers whose works have been anthologized. Second, they are among a relatively small number of Black writers whose stories appear in different kinds of anthologiesâgeneral short story collections, comprehensive literature anthologies, and special topics collections. Third, each of the Big 7 has at least one signature story that has appeared in more than ten anthologies. Finally, since 1990, each of these writers has had their stories published in more than twenty-five anthologies. The only Black short story writers who meet those four criteria are Chesnutt, Hurston, Wright, Ellison, Baldwin, Bambara, and Walker.
Editors of African American and American comprehensive collections are especially important in the case of the Big 7. These anthologies make up forty-four of the collections in the current dataset. These types of collections, which are primarily used in survey courses, offer a historical survey of authors and a variety of literary work. Stories by all of the Big 7 writers appear together in The New Cavalcade: African American Writing from 1760 to the Present (1991), The Norton Anthology of American Literature, Vol. 2 (1998), The Heath Anthology of American Literature, Vol. 2 (2002), and the first, second, and third editions of The Norton Anthology of African American Literature (1997, 2003, 2014).
Editors ensured the visibility and widespread circulation of stories by Chesnutt, Hurston, Wright, Ellison, Baldwin, Bambara, and Walker by continually including their compositions. Repeated selections kept the stories in print. Moreover, American and African American literature anthologies circulated the stories in different contexts. On the one hand, American literature anthologies placed stories by Hurston, Wright, and Walker, for instance, in conversation with prominent white writers such as William Faulkner, Robert Frost, F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Steinbeck, Flannery OâConnor, and Sylvia Plath. African American literature anthologies, on the other hand, presented Hurston, Wright, and Walker in relation to Rudolph Fisher, Ann Petry, Ernest Gaines, and other Black writers.
The Heath anthology edited by Paul Lauter was one of the first major anthologies that set out to deliberately diversify the literary canon by including Black writers consistently in subsequent editions of the anthology during the late 1980s.4 By 2002, the Big 7 had all appeared together in three editions of the Heath. In addition, Paule Marshall and Gaines had stories reprinted in the 1998, 2000, 2002, and 2006 editions. Ann Petryâs stories also appeared in the 1998 and 2002 editions of the Heath. Although Gaines, Marshall, and Petry each have over twenty stories in the dataset, those stories are mostly reprinted in Black collections. Even though they are included in various editions of the Heath, their works do not appear in other general anthologies such as The American Tradition in Literature, Shorter 10th Ed. (2002) and The Bedford Anthology of American Literature, Volume Two (2014).
Editors have republished Chesnutt works in thirty-three comprehensive American and African American literature anthologies. His stories have been included in more comprehensive anthologies than any other Black writer. When editors sought short fiction from the late nineteenth century to include in anthologies, they often selected works by Chesnutt, whose successful career and prominence as a literary artist made his stories preferred choices. Chesnutt was not the only Black writer publishing short stories at the turn of the twentieth century. Various publications included stories by Frances E. W. Harper, Mary Weston Fordham, Booker T. Washington, and W. E. B. Du Bois. Chesnuttâs stories, however, published in The Conjure Woman (1899) and The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color-Line (1899), are the favorites of editors who seek to include Black writers. Chesnuttâs two collections of short stories depict Black southern characters living between approximately 1850 and the turn of the twentieth century.
Chesnuttâs stories appear more than any other writer in the dataset as editors have collectively republished eleven of his stories in forty-eight anthologies. In eighteen instances, editors included at least two of Chesnuttâs stories in the same anthology, which helped elevate the total number of reprints of his stories. His stories are included in comprehensive anthologies such as Black Writers of America: A Comprehensive Anthology (1972) and American Literature: A Prentice Hall Anthology, Vol. 2 (1991), general short story collections like The Oxford Book of American Short Stories (2013) and Great Short Stories by African-American Writers (2015), and special topic readers, including African-American Classics: Graphic Classics (2011) and Black Noir: Mystery, Crime, and Suspense Stories by African-American Writers (2009). Five storiesââThe Goophered Grapevine,â âThe Wife of His Youth,â âThe Passing of Grandison,â âPoâ Sandy,â and âThe Sheriffâs Childrenââbecame the stories most often selected to represent Chesnutt. In the introduction to Cavalcadeâs âAccommodation and Protest: 1865â1910â section, Davis and Redding explain that Chesnutt was âthe first Negro novelist of imposing stature,â and the writerâs âspecial theme was the Negro of mixed blood, the âtragic mulattoâ: he was the first black author to deal in depth with the problem of the âcolor lineâ within the Negro race, and the first to make imaginative capital of racismâs consequences to the white man.â5 For Davis and Redding, Chesnuttâs racial firsts were important, and those achievements likely contributed to the basis for his inclusion.
Chesnuttâs plantation stories and use of Black southern vernacular gained popularity among majority white reading audiences during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, similar to the popularity of the commercially successful poet Paul Laurence Dunbar and author of the Uncle Remus series Joel Chandler Harris.6 All of their compositions dramatized events in southern locales offering readers a glimpse into rural landscapes. According to Matthew R. Martin, âChesnutt undertook the difficult task of conquering the literary marketplace by selling plantation tales which refused his readers the expected pleasures of paradisaical settings or happy slaves.â7 He continues, âAt the same time, he used a literary form whose appeal lay almost wholly in its romanticization of slavery and the plantation South as a means of revising public perceptions about those institutions.â In these stories, Chesnutt is not so much interested in critiquing the cruelty of slavery, but instead focuses on contrasting the characterizations of his recurring protagonist Uncle Juliusâs beliefs and those of his northern counterparts.
Even though Chesnutt is the most frequently anthologized writer, Baldwin has the single most republished story. Editors chose to reprint âSonnyâs Bluesâ in thirty-three anthologies, more than any other story in the dataset. The story has been republished in comprehensive African American collections such as Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in America (1968) and The New Cavalcade: African American Writing from 1760 to the Present (1991); the Black short story collections From the Roots: Short Stories by Black Americans (1970) and Children of the Night: The Best Short Stories by Black Writers, 1967 to the Present (1995); the general short story collections The Riverside Anthology of Literature (1996) and Fiction 100: An Anthology of Short Fiction (2012); and comprehensive American collections like The American Tradition in Literature, Shorter (1985) and Harper American Literature, Vol. 2 (1993). âSonnyâs Bluesâ has appeared in every comprehensive anthology in the dataset since 1972.
Baldwinâs story, however, was not always so prominent. Anthology editors included a variety of Baldwinâs stories such as âThe Outingâ and âThis Morning, This Evening, So Soon.â Gradually however, âSonnyâs Blues,â along with select essays by Baldwin, became the preferred choice of editors. With Chesnutt, editors decided between âThe Goophered Grapevine,â âThe Wife of His Youth,â and, to a slightly lesser extent, âThe Passing of Grandison.â With Hurston, editors made decisions between âThe Gilded Six-Bitsâ and âSweat.â For Baldwin, they almost always went with âSonnyâs Blues.â It has become his signature short story.
âSonnyâs Bluesâ first appeared in Partisan Review in 1957. The following year, Martha Foley and David Burnett selected Baldwinâs story for inclusion in the Best American Short Stories of 1958. Their selection of âSonnyâs Bluesâ for the collection represents the beginning of a long-standing choice made by editors. Since its initial appearance, the story has come to define much of Baldwinâs reputation as a short story writer. James Nagel noted in the biographical sketch on Baldwin for Anthology of the American Short Story (2008) that âSonnyâs Bluesâ is the writerâs most famous short story and the composition addresses âthe complexity of racial identity and the ways in which it impinges upon artistic expression.â8
Critically acclaimed novelists are often represented by their short stories. Such was the case with Wright. The acclaim generated by Native Son as well as his autobiography, Black Boy, prompted editors to include the author, though they selected his short stories far more than excerpts from either of his most well-known books. In October 1938, Wrightâs literary agent, Paul Reynolds Jr., capitalized on the national media attention of Uncle Tomâs Children and submitted a draft of Native Son to Ed Aswell, an editor at Harper and Brothers. In 1940, the Book-of-the-Month Club, which had five hundred thousand members, showcased Wrightâs debut novel as a selection, thereby ensuring that Native Son would exceed sales of two hundred thousand copies within the first three weeks of publication and greatly expanding his reading audience.9 The reception of Native Son immediately secured Wrightâs prominence and prompted editors to begin to include new and previous works by him in anthologies. In 1940, Harper and Brothers reissued his short story collection Uncle Tomâs Children with a new story âBright and Morning Starâ as well as Wrightâs essay âThe Ethics of Living Jim Crowâ as the bookâs introduction. Uncle Tomâs Children paved the way for Native Son; in turn, the success of that novel created reasons for anthology editors to select Wrightâs short fiction.
Although Wright is widely known for his depictions of urban contexts in his work, his short stories reveal his facility in writing rural landscapes. Wrightâs stories appear in general short story collections l...