Essentials of Organisational Behaviour in Africa

Betty Jane Punnett, Thomas Anyanje Senaji

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2022
• ISBN:
  9781000595291
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Commerce
• Subtopic: Comportement organisationnel

A concise textbook focusing on organisational behaviour in the African context, this book is featured in Routledge's new Essentials of Business and Management in Africa shortform textbook series.

This book covers organisational behaviour concepts applicable to the African continent and its varied cultures. Chapters thoroughly explore topics including personal and individual factors, motivation, decision making and communication, groups and teams, leadership and influence, conflict, and negotiation. Each chapter refers to aspects of the African context such as cultural values, Ubuntu, and the informal economy and relates these to the topics discussed. The book includes illustrative real-life examples, vignettes, mini-cases and exercises. Undergraduate and postgraduate students in Africa, and with an interest in the area, will appreciate the focus on a region so little discussed in the business and management literature.

Filling a gap in the literature and including a dearth of material, this book will also appeal to current and future practicing managers in African countries, as well as those employed in government and by Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs).

1Introduction to Organisational Behaviour

DOI: 10.4324/​9781003036838-1

Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define organisations
• Describe organisational behaviour
• Explain the meaning and impact of culture in organisations
• Explain additional aspects of context that relate to culture
• Examine organisational behaviour in the African context

Thought Starters

Proverb – a simple, traditional saying expressing a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and need to be interpreted. Some African examples:

• Ingoi yivula lisimba, translated as “a leopard begets a mongoose” – Tiriki, Kenya
• The monkey requested for a long tail and it was given – Luo, Kenya
• When the shepherd comes home in peace, the milk is sweet – Ethiopia
• The enemy does not fall where you throw it – Kikuyu, Kenya
• When you befriend a chief, remember that he sits on a rope – Uganda
• The night has ears – Maasai, Kenya

Summary

This chapter summarises what we mean by organisations and organisational behaviour (OB), and why understanding behaviour is critical to effective management and organisational performance/success. It considers the African context and relates this to behaviour. We discuss culture, present models of culture and available scores for African countries. The chapter briefly considers politics and economics, history and geography, language and religion, as they relate to OB.

Introduction

Recently, Africa has been seen as an attractive place to do business. African Economic Outlook (2019) shows real GDP growth was 2.1% in 2016, 3.6% in 2017, 3.5% in 2018 and projected at 4% and 4.1% for 2019 and 2020, higher than many other emerging/developing economies (lower than China and India, but China and India are countries while Africa is a continent with many diverse countries). The actual 2020 growth may be lower because of COVID-19 but forecasts remain optimistic. Inward and outward foreign direct investment has increased substantially and economic prospects have generally been positive. The uncertain global economy, political challenges, instability and poverty remain real for many African countries and dealing with these is a priority. This context needs to be understood to manage effectively in Africa.

Doing business in Africa requires recognition of diversity – across countries and within a country. Jackson (2004) argued that African managers deal effectively with multiple stakeholders and focus attention on people in their own right. Amoako-Agyei (2009) cautions that successful globalisation into Africa requires managers to have in-depth understanding of African cultural values and their impact on behaviour. Most African countries are collective and decisions are informed by community good, with individual gratification subservient to community wellbeing.

Organisations range from large, legal, registered enterprises (e.g., multinational corporations) to small ʻmom and popʼ shops. Organisations can be public, private, government, non-government, non-profit, local, national or international. We focus on business organisations, although OB concepts apply to all types of organisations. Managing a business includes coordinating resources (human, physical, financial) to achieve goals and provide profits. OB focuses on human resources, that is, people and is based on psychology, sociology, anthropology and economics. It asks why individuals/groups behave the way they do in organisations and seeks to understand and improve attitudes and behaviours and explain outcomes such as job performance and commitment. It sounds simple – to understand behaviour in organisations – but it is complex, because there are many factors which influence behaviour. OB can be defined as the study of human behaviour in organisational settings.

Early OB focused on productivity/performance and pay. Today OB is more complex and multi-faceted. In the late 1900s and early twentieth century, the belief was that people worked for economic reasons, efficiency resulted in increased performance and payment for performance was effective. This was known as scientific management and based on people behaving logically and rationally, essentially without emotions. Over time, behavioural scientists considered the human elements of work and people's emotions. They argued that people wanted to work for a variety of reasons, not just economic, and understanding emotions, needs, desires and so on, at work would contribute to performance/productivity. Next, the focus was the context of behaviour, and the impact of both the task and people dimensions of performance. Contingency theories integrated several considerations into understanding OB and these are relatively complex because they incorporate multiple perspectives. These will be explored in more detail in later chapters. OB is a growing field and becoming more important in the global economy where people of diverse backgrounds/values work together. It has been criticised for Western assumptions and scholars are seeking to expand its scope to include non-Western thinking. The world of work is also changing in the twenty-first century – more contract work, virtual work, networks and so on, some of which are being encouraged by the COVID-19 pandemic. These trends will impact behaviour at work, and we expect theories to expand and change to encompass shifts in the workplace.

It is important to understand the context within which behaviour takes place. Punnett (2019) identifies the following factors as relevant contextual factors.

Societal/National Culture

This focuses on ʻthe way of life of a group of peopleʼ. The group might be a society, nation state, region, ethnic group/tribe, etc. Culture is shared by group members, it is passed on by family and can be learned at homes, schools and religious/other organisations. Culture shapes values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours, and cultures vary because of these.

Some cultural cues are easily identified – clothes, food, spoken language, music, movies, television shows, etc., are relatively obvious aspects of culture. Some groups use chopsticks, some knives/forks, some eat ugali or fufu with their fingers and Italians use a fork and spoon for spaghetti. One metaphor relates culture to an iceberg. An iceberg has visible parts on the surface of the water and invisible parts underwater; up to 90% of an iceberg's area can be hidden (see Figure 1.1). Similarly, culture and behaviours have both visible and invisible components, and it is easier to see and understand the visible aspects, above water, than those not visible, below water. Another metaphor is an island. Things on the surface of the island, mountains, valleys, rivers, forests, buildings can be seen, studied and understood – these are the equivalent of food, clothing, etc., but we cannot see what is below the surface. Values, attitudes and beliefs are aspects of culture which cannot be readily seen but must be discerned through experience.

Figure 1.1 Culture as an Iceberg.

Visible – e.g., Art, Dress, Food, Greetings, Language, and Literature.

Invisible – Assumptions, Beliefs, Biases, Norms and Values.

Several cultural models have attempted to measure these aspects of culture by identifying cultural value dimensions.

Cultural Models

The best-known model, Hofstede's (1980, 2001) identifies:

• Individualism/Collectivism (IDV) – the extent to which people feel independent, versus being interdependent on members of a group.
• Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) – the extent to which people tolerate uncertainty and ambiguity, versus anxiety and distrust of the unknown and preference for laws, rules, procedures, habits and rituals.
• Masculinity/femininity (MAS) – the extent to which assertiveness and competitiveness are accepted, and men are tough and ʻbread winnersʼ, versus a focus on the quality of life and more sympathy and empathy for the unfortunate in society.
• Power Distance (PDI) – the extent to which people accept that power will be distributed unequally, versus equality being valued with few differences in power between members.
• Long-term/orientation (LTO) – the degree of concern and planning for the future, versus a focus on the immediate and short-term.
• Indulgence/restraint (IND) – the degree to which people do what they want to feel good and free, versus a belief that restraint is necessary, life is hard and duty is expected.

Hofstede's website provides maps and scores for countries around the world.

Noorderhaven and Tidjani (2001) identified a value dimension in African countries (Cameroon, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe) related to Hofstede's work. They found that ʻtraditional wisdomʼ was correlated with the Far East dimension of long-term orientation but had the following implications in the African context – wisdom is more important than knowledge and wisdom comes from experience and time, not from education. This seems to underscore African veneration for age and the wisdom age implies, but suggests a downplaying of the value of education.

Studies including African countries suggest that Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zambia are short-term oriented (LTO = 25), collectivist (IDV = 27) and moderate on power distance (PDI = 64). West African countries, Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone (PDI = 77) and Egypt (PDI = 80) are higher on power distance. More generally, African countries are on the collective side of the scale, with a short-term orientation. Management should consider these cultural values relative to strategies, goals, structures, policies and procedures so they fit with the cultural context. For example, high power distance relates to acceptance of hierarchy, and short-term orientation relates to time frames for planning.

The Globe Project (House, 2004) looked at eight dimensions of culture, similar to Hofstede’s:

• Institutional Collectivism – degree to which society practices, encourages and rewards collective distribution of resources and collective action.
• In-Group Collectivism – degree to which society expresses pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in groups (society, organisations, families, etc.).
• Gender Egalitarianism – degree to which society promotes gender equality and minimises inequality.
• Future Orientation – degree to which society engages in future-oriented behaviours such as planning/investing in the future.
• Power Distance – degree to which society accepts and endorses authority, power differences and status privileges.
• Uncertainty Avoidance – degree to which society relies on social norms, rules and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events.
• Assertiveness – degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational and aggressive in relationships with others.
• Humane Orientation – degree to which society encourages and rewards fairness, altruism, generosity, caring and kindness.

Results for five Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, (Nigeria, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa – black sample) suggest common themes characterising SSA. One was ubuntu, reflecting high levels of group solidarity, and a paternalistic, humane-oriented leadership. Wanasika, Howell, Littrell, and Dorfman (2010) commented that “although the negative legacy of colonial dominance has contributed to a culture of corruption, poverty, tribalism and violence, charismatic leaders frequently invoke indigenous cultural values and means to overcome these problems” (p. 234).

Hofstede and GLOBE have a worldwide focus. The Leadership Effectiveness in Africa and the African Diaspora (LEAD) project focused on African countries. LEAD found five characteristics of an effective leader.

• A social leader – social, wise and hard working.
• A visionary servant leader – takes care of the community by participating in community projects and supporting followers.
• An inspirational leader – models good behaviours and inspires subordinates.
• A traditional leader – believes in following traditions and respecting gender roles.
• A delegative leader – believes in delegating authority to subordinates.

The LEAD findings corroborate Hofstede’s, with respect and tradition important descriptors of culture in Africa (see Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, December 2014). African cultures have also been characterised by personal steadiness/stability, protecting ʻfaceʼ and reciprocation of greetings/favours/gifts. Respect for tradition may inhibit implementation of change and possibly lead to a lack of innovation. Protecting ʻfaceʼ may mean organisational members do not confront undesirable behaviours but cover them to avoid embarrassment. Reciprocity can result in ethical compromises (Tangpong, Li, Hung & Senaji, 2012).

There are many other models of culture and the reader should review these for additional insights on cultural values. See, for example, Schwartz (1992), Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) and World Values Survey (2018).

Ubuntu as an African world view and descriptor of African culture has received recent attention.

Ubuntu

Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa said of Ubuntu:

A person is a person through other persons. None of us comes into the w...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half-Title Page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication Page
• Contents
• List of figures and table
• 1 Introduction to Organisational Behaviour
• 2 Personal/Individual Factors
• 3 Job Performance and Job Design
• 4 Motivation
• 5 Decision-Making and Communication
• 6 Groups/Teams
• 7 Leadership and Influence
• 8 Conflict and Negotiation
• Index