Biological and Chemical Hazards in Food and Food Products

Prevention, Practices, and Management

Santosh K. Mishra, Megh R. Goyal, Manju Gaare

• Publisher: Apple Academic Press
• Year: 2022
• ISBN:
  9781000409307
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Science General
• Index: Biological Sciences

This volume takes an in-depth look at various biological and chemical hazards in food and food products that pose health threats. It also outlines methods and practices for the diagnosis, prevention, and management of these hazards in food production processes. The new scientific research and case studies presented in the volume cover mycotoxins, foodborne pathogens, antibiotic residues from dairy animals, pesticide residues, the presence of heavy metals in food, and more. Chapters also address food allergy management and offer lessons and practices in food recall situations.

The authors discuss the various food toxins, their sources, as well as management, mitigation, and prevention strategies. Also addressed are the specific adverse effects on people with health problems such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and more. This book is organized in such a way that each chapter treats one major food safety hazard and offers novel control methods for health, food safety, and quality enhancement through various means.

Biological and Chemical Hazards in Food and Food Products: Prevention, Practices, and Management will aid researchers and policymakers as it illustrates the various aspects of food safety hazards and how to analyze and control these potential health threats.

PART I Biological Hazards in Foods and Food Products

CHAPTER 1 POTENTIAL THREAT OF MYCOTOXINS TO FOOD SAFETY AND SECURITY

V. DHARINI, NEHA HALDER, S. PERIYAR SELVAM, G. MIKUNTHAN, and M. MAHESH KUMAR

ABSTRACT

Providing safe and nutritious food for human consumption is the ultimate aim of all food manufacturing and processing sectors. The occurrence of mycotoxins in food products continues to be the major hazard producing factor in developing and also in developed countries. Satisfying the hunger needs of the expanded population with safe and healthy foods is still a dream for many countries. Mycotoxins, secondary metabolites of fungi have deleterious effects in human metabolism leading to cancer and other genetic disorders. At such a scenario prevalence of mycotoxins in a wide range of food products adds an additional criterion in hazard analysis and determining its critical control point. Effect of climate on agricultural produce plays a significant role in food production, which directly or indirectly incubates the causative agents of mycotoxins, especially fungi. Admitting this complexity, numerous researchers have developed different mitigation technique which helps in the production of safe, sustainable, wholesome foods and agricultural products.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites, having a low molecular weight, produced by a fungus that causes a toxic response upon ingestion. Synthesized by diverse fungal species, such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria, its harmful effect on human and animal health varies depending upon the varying molecular structures causing significant differences upon entrance into production and food chain [20]. In 1960 the term mycotoxin was used to construe the toxin contaminating peanuts in feed of animals resulting in loss of turkey in England (Turkey-X disease) termed aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). It was defined as “natural products produced by fungi that evoke a toxic response when introduced in low concentrations to higher vertebrates and other animals by a natural route” [12].

Thought to be “chemical defense system,” mycotoxins were synthesized to safeguard the mold from insects, microorganisms, nematodes, etc. Till attainment of favorable conditions, the spores produced by fungi can be dormant sustaining adverse conditions. During favorable growth conditions, spores attain vegetative state [7]. Traditionally, toxic fungi contaminating agricultural produce were grouped as ‘Field’ fungi (Fusarium, Cladosporium, and Alternaria spp.) that affected the crop during development of plant and ‘Storage’ fungi (Penicillium and Aspergillus spp.) proliferating during storage. However, it is currently divided into four types [12]:

• Plant pathogen: Fusarium graminearum and Alternaria alternate;
• Fungi affecting stressed or senescent plants: Aspergillus flavus;
• Fungus that colonizes the plant increasing susceptibility after harvest: A. flavus; and
• Fungi found on soil or in decomposing plant part on kernel later to proliferate during storage: Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus ochraceus.

Fungi play an important part as pathogens for plants and insects. They cause mycosis and mycotoxicoses. Exposure through diet, inhalation, dermal or other factors leads to mycotoxicoses whereas growth on host leading to disease is called mycoses. Some infections remain localized, while others tend to spread as systemic infections. However, both generally fall under non-communicable diseases. It is very important for the fungal pathogen to be able to grow at human body temperature of 37°C for systemic infection to occur. However, the optimum temperature falls under the mesophilic range of 20–30°C for biosynthesis of mycotoxins. In plants, various secondary metabolites produced by bacteria and fungi cause plant diseases by acting as potential virulence factors [4].

1.1.1 MYCOSES

Generally, for mycoses the pulmonary tract acts as an entry portal. Mycoses causing fungi can be categorized into two namely primary and opportunistic pathogens:

• Primary pathogen affects a person with healthy immune system and examples include Coccidiodes immitis and Histoplasma capsulatum; and
• Opportunistic pathogen causes illness in immune-compromised individuals and examples include Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans.

1.2 MYCOTOXICOSES

Mycotoxicoses occur upon poisoning by natural means such as eating contaminated food, dermal contact, and inhalation of infected substrate. The symptoms depend on various factors, such as:

• Amount of toxin;
• Type of mycotoxin;
• Duration of exposure;
• Age and sex of the individual;
• Other synergistic factors like genetics, diet, etc. [4].

1.3 MYCOTOXINS

In 1967, three children died and 27 people were affected by food poisoning, which was due to consumption of rice containing elevated levels of aflatoxin (AF). In 2004, an outbreak of mycotoxin poisoning was reported in Kenya that resulted in 125 deaths out of 317 cases. All mycotoxins are produced by fungus, but all toxins produced by fungus are not labeled as mycotoxins. Toxins produced against bacteria, like penicillin, are called antibiotics. Toxins produced against plants are called phytotoxins. Mushrooms are also fungi that produce metabolites but those are not categorized as mycotoxins. The difference between poisoning from mushrooms and mycotoxin is not only based on the size of fungus but on the intention of humans because mycotoxin ingestion is mostly accidental [4].

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MYCOTOXINS

Mycotoxins are difficult to define as well as categorize due to their diversity. Due to this, different groups classify it differently. Clinically depending upon the affected organ, it may be classified as:

• Neurotoxins;
• Hepatotoxins;
• Nephrotoxins;
• Immunotoxins, etc.

As per biologists, they have groups like carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and allergic. Chemists classify them based on chemical structures into groups like polyketides, lactones, coumarins, etc. Mycologists differentiate them by producing organisms like Aspergillus toxin, Penicillium toxin, etc. This differentiation is not accurate as it lands some of the toxins into multiple categories like AF is a carcinogenic, mutagenic, hepatotoxin polyketide-derived Aspergillus toxin [4].

1.5 CAUSE OF PRODUCTION

At any stage, during production and processing or transport and storage, mycotoxins can occur in food. There are many factors that contribute to favorable conditions for the growth of molds and mycotoxin production. The main factors are temperature, fungicides, relative humidity, and fertilizers. However, it also depends on factors like interaction between the toxigenic fungal species, geographical location, nutritional factors, genetic requirements, and infestation by insects [7]. Cereals, grains, nuts, oilseeds, vegetables, cocoa, dry fruits, herbs, fruits, spices are the major source for mycotoxicity as it is consumed by a considerable number of people and animals. It possesses a huge risk on the health of humans, as well as causes huge economic losses due to reduced yield of crops and illness in livestock upon consumption. This leads to losses in trade revenues in both international and domestic markets [5].

This chapter will briefly describe the causes, effect, detection methods along with control strategies of mycotoxins. Overview on model-based approaches in finding out the predictive results for the mycotoxin production will also be given importance along with the deep insights of the practices to be followed in producing safe and secure foods.

1.6 TYPES OF TOXINS AND HARMFUL EFFECTS

Around 25% of the estimated world crops get influenced by mold or growth of fungi, causing serious economic consequences. These crops may in turn be contaminated with mycotoxin which poses a risk on human and animal health. It also may cause secondary contamination into meat, milk, and eggs [5]. Contamination of human food may occur at different stages of the food chain. Three significant genera of mycotoxin producing fungi are Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium. Prominent mycotoxins produced by them are: AFs (Aspergillus), trichothecenes (TCTC), fumonisins (Fusarium), and ochratoxins (Aspergillus and Penicillium).

Mycotoxin exposure results in a disease known as mycotoxicosis. Generally, Aspergillus, and Penicillium grow on food and feed during storage and Fusarium propagates in plants infecting the growing crops such as wheat, maize, and barley. Maize is a crop that is largely susceptible to mycotoxin. They are thermally stable and can withstand various food pr...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Book Series: Innovations in Agricultural and Biological Engineering
• Other Books on Agricultural and Biological Engineering from Apple Academic Press, Inc.
• About the Lead Editor
• About the Senior Editor-In-Chief
• About the Editor
• Table of Contents
• Contributors
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• Part I: Biological Hazards in Foods and Food Products
• Part II: Chemical Hazards in Milk and Milk Products
• Part III: Food Safety Hazards: Practices and Management
• Index