1 Background
Between 2000 and 2015, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) remained the overarching development framework that governed the international development community. Many countries incorporated the MDGs into their development plans and implemented specific projects intended to achieve various development targets. After a decade and half of commitment to the MDGs, the framework is widely considered a success. For instance, according to the United Nations (2015a), the number of people living in extreme poverty have declined by more than half, reducing from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015. With regards to education, the average primary school enrolment rates across developing countries have increased from 83 percent in 2000 to 91 percent in 2015, while the number of out-of-school children of school-going age fell from an estimated 100 million in 2000 to about 57 million in 2015.
Substantial progress has been made regarding gender equality, however, gender gaps in areas of opportunities, economic and political empowerment, and other areas of wellbeing persist in many developed and developing countries (Klasen, 2018). For instance, while many more girls are now enrolled in school and the percentage of women with vulnerable jobs as a share of total female employment has declined, female parliamentary representation has not seen much increase. Gender gaps in wages persist as well. Child mortality and maternal mortality rates have declined by more than half and about half, respectively. However, children from the poorest households are more likely to suffer from malnutrition. Mortality rates are also about twice as high for these children compared to those from the wealthiest households. Improvements in access to improving water sources do not extend to the majority of people in rural areas (United Nations, 2015a).
Despite the success that has been reported across countries, progress has been uneven. Specifically, the recorded achievements have also been accompanied by uneven shortfalls across many countries and areas. With the introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), perhaps the most important questions on the minds of most policymakers pertain to what factors contributed to the MDGs progress, and what is likely to explain the uneven progress across countries. Answering these questions is important for assessing the ongoing progress of the SDGs and identifying key policy areas to focus on. This book presents a collection of chapters that examine various dimensions of the MDGs and development goals in general. It provides insights that are relevant to understanding the factors that influence development.
The new overarching international development framework may not be successful or present the best opportunities for the desired global change without a better understanding of factors that contributed the most or the least to the attainment of the MDGs. The chapters presented in this book provide discussions and insights into understanding these factors better. They represent a collection of scholarship that addresses some of the important questions in international development that have remained unanswered. They adopt a wide range of research methods to provide insight into what works, and what does not, in promoting the stipulated development goals.
2 Summary of Chapters in the Book
The individual chapters in this book focus on a wide range of development issues ranging from the focus on specific development goals to more general discussions on development. Five chapters focus on single countries to present sub-national (i.e., household- or individual-level) evidence on factors that influence development outcomes, while another five focus on cross-country evidence. Two chapters provide descriptive accounts based on qualitative analysis, while one chapter provides a much needed review of existing literature.
Sefa Awaworyi Churchill, Ahmed Salim Nuhu and Russell Smyth reflect on the importance of financial inclusion as a tool for poverty alleviation. The United Nations and the World Bank have declared universal financial inclusion as a strategic priority to address poverty (World Bank, 2018). Financial inclusion is believed to promote inclusive growth, financial deepening and economic development (Aghion & Bolton, 1997; Galor & Zeira, 1993). The expansion of poor peopleâs access to finance is argued to increase their economic opportunities, thus helping alleviate poverty (Ellis & Lemma, 2010; Ghosh & Vinod, 2017). The general acceptance of the importance of financial inclusion has led to the adoption of various programs by governments around the world to promote financial inclusion. Several governments have also committed to global frameworks such as the principles proposed in the Maya Declaration, which is an initiative for promoting sustainable financial inclusion made by a group of developing nations during the Alliance for Financial Inclusionâs 2011 Global Policy Forum held in Mexico.
Awaworyi Churchill, Nuhu and Smyth use data from the Financial Inclusion Insights (FII) program for Nigeria, one of the first nations to commit to the Maya Declaration, to present evidence on the effects of financial inclusion on household poverty. Their study is timely and their focus on Nigeria is also particularly relevant. With the World Bankâs target date for the declaration of universal financial inclusion by 2020 almost due, understanding whether financial inclusion has made a difference in the lives of poor households, especially in countries such as Nigeria that are committed to the financial inclusion agenda, is important. Nigeria hosts Africaâs largest economy but is also one of the poorest. More importantly, Awaworyi Churchill, Nuhu and Smyth discuss the relevance of drawing on evidence from a country such as Nigeria for policy, given that it hosts the largest financial inclusion program in Africa. They measure financial inclusion multi-dimensionally to reflect access to banks, access to credit and access to insurance, and find that financial inclusion alleviates poverty. The chapter reveals interesting insights on the importance of financial inclusion, and which dimension of financial inclusion in the most effective.
Chei Bukari and Isaac Koomson provide evidence on the potential link between mobile money adoption and household health outcomes. Mobile money is believed to have advanced financial inclusion in many developing countries (Donovan, 2012; Hughes & Lonie, 2007). Mobile money is widely viewed as a financial technology that offers the opportunity for people to spend, save and transfer money using a cell phone. Thus, for those who are unable to open accounts with a bank for various reasons, having a phone and an active SIM card ensures that basic financial transactions are executed. This model of financial inclusion is championed by several mobile network providers in developing countries. Bukari and Koomson focus on SDG 3, which aims at ensuring healthy lives and promoting wellbeing for all at all ages. With emphasis on the sub-target of achieving universal health coverage, they examine the effect of mobile money adoption on healthcare spending and utilization of rural households in Ghana. Their findings show that mobile money adoption enhances healthcare utilization and improves the ability of rural households to spend on healthcare. This finding is more so pronounced in the case of female-headed households.
Sefa Awaworyi Churchill, Lisa Farrell and Vijaya Marisetty also focus on the impact of various dimensions of mobile money, but with emphasis on the gender equality and the womenâs empowerment aspect of the SDGs. The United Nat...