Why is it meaningful to examine ecologically conscious business organizations within the social science context—particularly their value background and business models? The first chapter of this book justifies the value of this goal. It also briefly presents the framework of the research that lies behind the book using a short summary of earlier studies and a discussion of related methodological issues. It then concludes with an overview of the structure of the book.
Let the Facts Speak for Themselves
Scientific research (see, among others, Carrington 2016, Waters et al. 2016) suggests that we are now living in a new era that may be called the Anthropocene1; a time when human activities have significantly altered Earth’s ecosystems (Crutzen and Stoermer 2000; Steffen and Broadgate et al. 2015a; Steffen and Richardson et al. 2015b). Our biosphere-transforming activities—primarily involving the globalization of societies and economies—have by now reached such an extent that they are incomparably larger and more harmful than those of other species, and are largely irreversible. It is not only our well-being, but also the very survival of our own and other species that is at stake (Pataki and Takács-Sánta 2005; Takács-Sánta 2004). To alleviate the ecological crisis affecting our planet, the spread of ecological consciousness and a praxis that focuses on restoring the natural environment is badly needed. This transformation would enable the economy to function again as a system “embedded” in nature and society (Polanyi 1944).
Owing to the work of excellent scholars and scientific communities (including Rachel Carson [1962], Club of Rome [2020], Mihajlo Mesarovic [Mesarovic and Pestel 1974], Jan Tinbergen [1977], Ernst F. Schumacher [1973], and the Stockholm Resilience Center [SRC 2020]), we have known for almost half a century that we are facing very serious ecological problems. What then, are the signs of the ecological crisis?
The main environmental problems include changes in communities of natural living beings, deforestation, and soil degradation; changes in global bio- and geochemical cycles, contamination, acid rain, smog, eutrophication, and the ozone hole; global climate change; the decline in biodiversity; food scarcity; and fresh water scarcity (Takács-Sánta 2010).
Researchers have been dealing with global climate change and the related trends since the 1970s. It is known that colder and warmer periods have periodically occurred on Earth, but climatic processes seem to have changed because of human activity. First, in 1972 the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (held in Stockholm) addressed the phenomenon in detail (at which time the United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP, was also created). Following this, in 1985 at the World Climate Conference in Villach, Austria, climate change was identified as a scientifically grounded fact. At conferences held in the following years (1988 in Toronto, 1990 in Geneva) participants also confirmed the need to reduce the greenhouse gasses emitted into the atmosphere. This was also due to the Brundtland Commission, which functioned from 1984 to 1987, and to the activities of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established in 1988 (IPCC 2020).
The IPCC examines and summarizes research findings about climate change induced by human activities. It published its Fifth Assessment Report in 2014, after issuing reports in 1990, 1996, 2001, and 2007. According to the former report, the terrestrial climate is obviously warming, and the rise in global average temperatures since the mid-twentieth century is due to greenhouse gas emissions of human origin. Climate change is causing global sea levels to rise steadily, the thickness of polar ice sheets to decrease, rainfall to become more intense, and drought periods to become longer. In many regions of the world, these phenomena are decreasing residents’ access to safe drinking water. Particularly vulnerable regions (those affected by multiple dimensions of the crisis) are the Polar Regions, Sub-Saharan Africa, small islands, and Asian delta regions. Ecosystems facing an elevated level of danger include coral reefs, colonies of marine shellfish, tundra, coniferous forests in the taiga, as well as mountainous and Mediterranean regions. Approximately 20–30 percent of all plant and animal species are presently threatened with extinction (IPCC 2014).
In 2018, the IPCC published a special report on the impact of global warming of 1.5 ℃ above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways. It concludes that human activities have already caused approximately 1.0 ℃ of global warming, but this is likely to reach 1.5 ℃ between 2030 and 2052 if the temperature increase continues at the current rate. Warming from anthropogenic emissions will persist for centuries to millennia, and will continue to cause further long-term changes in the climate system. The climate-related risks to natural and human systems depend on the magnitude and rate of warming, geographical location, level of development and vulnerability, and on the choices and implementation of adaptation and mitigation options. Limiting risks must involve societal and system transition and transformation that can be enabled by increasing adaptation—and mitigation-focused investment, policy instruments, accelerating technological innovation, and behavioral changes. Strengthening the capacity for climate action of national and sub-national authorities, civil society, the private sector, indigenous people and local communities, and greater international cooperation can support the implementation of ambitious initiatives (IPCC 2018).
The latest annual report from the World Meteorological Organization explains the impact of changing weather and climate on the socio-economic sphere, health, migration, food security, and terrestrial and aquatic life. It highlights that the past five years have been the warmest period since the systematic measurement of temperature began, and that 2010–2019 has been the warmest decade. In addition, since the 1980s each successive decade has been warmer than any preceding one. A record amount of ice has melted in both the Arctic and the Antarctic. The oceans have absorbed around 23 percent of annual CO2 emissions, moderating the increase in the atmospheric concentration. This process, however, enhances ocean acidification. Additionally, almost every region of the World Ocean suffered at least one heat wave in 2019. This warming will continue as the amount of greenhouse gases increases. These tendencies endanger the living conditions of ocean flora and fauna. The effects of climate change are already being felt as extreme weather conditions, and their consequences are dramatically and rapidly accelerating. We are still on the wrong track regarding keeping the likely temperature change to a maximum of 1.5–2 ℃ above the pre-industrial level, as called for in the Paris Climate Convention. The latter report again calls on decision-makers to start taking the situation seriously, because we are slowly running out of time to act (WMO 2020).
Although the international conferences of the last three decades have generated increasingly profound results (1992 Rio de Janeiro—Agenda 21, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; 1997 Kyoto Protocol; 2002 Johannesburg—World Summit on Sustainable Development; 2005 Montreal—“rulebook” for implementing the Kyoto Protocol; 2009 Copenhagen—legally non-binding Copenhagen Accord; 2010 Cancún—Cancun Agreements, idea of setting up a Green Climate Fund and a forest protection program; 2011 Durban—Green Climate Fund; 2012 Doha—The Doha Climate Gateway; 2015 ...