What if we were to extend the territory of madness beyond the human skin? â[I]f Lake Erie is driven insane, its insanity is incorporated in the larger system of your thought and experienceâ (Bateson, 2000, p. 492). The world is being driven insane. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007, 2013) affirms âwith very high confidenceâ and âvirtual certaintyâ that humans have altered the climate to an alarming degree. The ability for the Earth to self-regulate in a way that supports an abundance of biological species is now under threat (again). Population sizes of vertebrate species have dropped by half since 1970 (WWF, 2014, 2015), in the time that I have been alive. Although this book is not about climate change and mass extinction specifically, these potentially catastrophic concepts are implicated in the nature of this book due to the novel approach I take by suggesting that mental health is distributed in the environment. We are implicated and imbricated in a process of ecocide.1 The idea that climate change, as a thing happening âout thereâ, may be affecting our psyche, as a thing happening âin hereâ (our heads), seems rather unidirectional, deterministic, transcendent and dualistic in its approach. Rather than focusing on climate change per se as some separate phenomena that may negatively affect a human psyche bound within a skull, maybe a redefinition of mental health and wellbeing is needed, one that merges conceptual boundaries and regards âthe climateâ as of a wider mental assemblage so that mental health and wellbeing becomes an ecological or even geological discipline. It seems that our perceptions, conceptions and affections may well be worth unpacking if we are to attempt to map the spread mind in âenviron(mental) healthâ.2 The planetâs health is ultimately our health and as such we may need to displace our current understanding of human-environment relations. This introduction opens up these issues before revealing the rest of the journey from there, a journey that takes gradual steps to an ecology of mental health as you step through each chapter. This process highlights how mental health is spread from small objects all the way up to cities, forests, the world and beyond (ecologically, conceptually, topologically3).
Landscapes Are Transformed
âWe need 1.5 Earths to regenerate the natural resources we currently use; we cut trees faster than they mature, harvest more fish than oceans replenish, and emit more carbon into the atmosphere than forests and oceans can absorbâ (WWF, 2014, para. 3). This has led many academics to adopt a change of name for the current geological period in Earthâs history:
We no longer live in the Holocene [âŠ] but in the Anthropocene. Chemical, physical and biological changes are dramatic and sometimes frankly alarming: atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are now at levels last seen more than two million years ago and rising fast; invasive species have been introduced to every continent and a sixth great mass extinction event may be with us in mere centuries; landscapes are transformed. (Zalasiewicz, 2013, p. 9)
At the same
time, conceptions of
mental landscapes have been transforming. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that anxiety, stress and mental ill-health are
becoming more prevalent in modern Western societies.
Capitalism has been named as one of the guilty culprits for this mental malaise as well as influencing environmental degradation, hence the
term âCapitaloceneâ (Moore,
2014). Some academics relate these various issues to a âcrisis of perceptionâ (Capra,
1996) and/or a general nature-culture perceptual misalignmentâsomething Alfred North Whitehead called âThe Bifurcation
of Natureâ.
4 This particular view frames the problems mentioned at the
ontological levelâthe nature of reality/the study of existenceâand the
epistemological levelâthe nature of knowledge (how do we think we know what we know?). It also leads to questions about ethics and/or moralityâwhat âshouldâ we do or what âcanâ we do? In agreement with quantum physicist/social scientist
Karen Barad, I donât think these concepts can be categorically separated, hence her term, â
ethico-onto-epistemologyâ (Barad,
2007, p. 381) in order to denote the intertwining of ethics, knowing and being. But before we get into that philosophical compositionâand as this story needs to start somewhere a little more accessibleâwhat better
place to begin, regarding a mental account of the earth, than âthe
Anthropoceneâ.
The Anthropocene
I was at a conference where someone said something about the Holocene. I suddenly thought this was wrong. The world has changed too much. So I said: âNo, we are in the Anthropocene.â I just made up the word on the spur of the moment. Everyone was shocked. But it seems to have stuck. (Crutzen, cited in Pearce, 2007, p. 44)
Popularised by Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer, the
Anthropocene (unofficially) replaces the Holocene as the current geological period in Earthâs history due to human influence on the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere (if you want to label them this way). Its acceptance as an official term for the current geological epoch is still being debated but it is
becoming used increasingly by various geological societies, climatologists and academics, for example. Such is the popularity of the term that it is now the title of a heavy metal album,
The Anthropocene Extinction. There are also a few contenders, for a variety of reasons, that claim to be the starting point for the Anthropoceneâthe
Pleistocene, the Holocene, the Agricultural Revolution, the 1500s, the Industrial Revolution, 1945, 1964âbut as Timothy Morton asks, â[i]s it at all possible to say with a straight face that on a certain date at a certain time, a threshold will have been crossed that guarantees the arrival of apocalyptic catastrophe?â (Morton,
2012, para. 7). Iâm sure some people could and do.
The term Anthropocene is yet another example of the bifurcation of nature. When the concept is used, it is often juxtaposed with the supposedly more natural geological epochs:
The term Anthropocene [âŠ] suggests that the Earth has now left its natural geological epoch, the present interglacial state called the Holocene. Human activities have become so pervasive and profound that they rival the great forces of Nature and are pushing the Earth into planetary terra incognita. The Earth is rapidly moving into a less biologically diverse, less forested, much warmer, and probably wetter and stormier state. (Steffen, Crutzen, & McNeill, 2007, p. 614)
So, human
activities ârivalâ nature/natural activities, as if we were not
of the world. The other
mass extinctions were supposedly brought about by volcanic action. If we understood the taxonomic family tree by what things âdoâ rather than by genetic variation, I would say that humanâs closest relative was not the chimpanzee but the volcano. We are a natural process too. That doesnât mean we have to like it or sit back and take it, but it does have implications as to how much we are able to do about it, especially if we accept that agency is a distributed process and not a
thing contained within the shell of a human.
Although I realise the obvious anthropocentricâas well as gendered and hegemonicâissue in the concept Anthropocene (see Haraway, 2015), I agree with Morton (2014) when he states, âAnthropocene ends the concept nature: a stable, nonhuman background to (human) history. Should this not be welcome for scholars rightly wary of setting artificial boundaries around historyâs reach?â (p. 1). However, I also disagree with Mortonâs insistence that the sixth mass extinction event is âcaused by humansânot jellyfish, not dolphins, not coralâ (2014, p. 2) in that humans are not a transcendent or biologically bounded entity (or âobjectâ as he might now put it) distinct from the intra-actions5 of other life processes. This would lead to a âfetishisation of difference that tends to erase other differencesâ (Colebrook, 2014, seminar). In this sense, the term Anthropocene may herald problematic performative consequences. Alternatively, the Plastocene (Preston, 2017) seems apt for obvious reasons. There is even a rock called âplastiglomerateâ, formed when plastic fuses with rock, sand, wood, coral and shells. Emerging 150 years ago, plastic is now in our geological record. We are living in a plastic age. It is also a brand of childrenâs putty as well as sounding very similar to another geological period, the Pleistocene.
It might be ...