Gender and Age in the Mirror
There is a moment, Frida Furman argues, when âthe aging female body comes into deep conflict with cultural representations of feminine beautyâ (1997: 5), when as Kathleen Woodward comments, âall mirrors are potentially threateningâ (1991: 67). A consequence of the tension between the prevailing model of normative femininity (i.e. based on youth/beauty/sexual desirability) and the ageing female body is that there is no accepted linguistic or visual trajectory for accommodating age and ageing within the cultural rules governing the performance of femininity. By way of illustration, in a recent interview in The Sunday Times (31 December 2017), the classicist Mary Beard, whose struggles with visibility are well documented (and discussed more fully in Chapter 8) characterises the female experience as âeither youâre ribbed for looking a mess or youâre attacked for being vainâ. Indeed, what the cultural mirror reflects back to the collective gaze, often via the media as the lens of cultural attitudes, renders the ageing female body, paradoxically, âboth invisible and hypervisibleâ (Woodward 1999: xvi). I take the notion of the many-faceted mirror as a leitmotif for this book: my central focus is the investigation of the language used about and also by, ageing women, as it is reflected through the cultural âlabyrinth of distorting mirrorsâ (Hazan 1994: 19). In this introductory chapter I outline in broad terms the nature and scope of the book and the questions I will address. I begin by briefly describing the cultural context which gives the bookâand the research on which it is basedâits raison dâĂȘtre, and which has shaped my thinking both as a researcher and as an older woman. I develop this discussion more fully in Chapter 2.
My study focuses on two discourse domains and the relationship between them. The first is discourse at a macro levelâthe public voicesâexemplified by the following quotation which shows how ageing womanhood is reflected in the cultural mirror: the social commentator Rush Limbaughâs public speculation about
Hillary Clinton,
âDoes America⊠want to watch a woman of Mrs Clintonâs age, age before their eyes in office?â (Rush Limbaugh, quoted in The Sunday Times, 15 February 2015)
The second is language used at an individual levelâthe private voicesâillustrated by this comment from a mid-life female respondent in one of the interviews I collected for this study:
âŠ. I feel theyâre [sc. colleagues] all so much younger and Iâm kind of irrelevant but I do find outside that I notice quite a lot of attractive older men with white hair and I think there didnât used to be all these men with white hair⊠but I can see that you just didnât even see those peopleâŠ. you become quite invisible. (Female respondent, aged 56)
She expresses the complex action of the subjective gaze, simultaneously turning inwards in the evaluation of self and outwards in its judgements of others. Both quotations highlight the unease generated in public as well as private domains by ageingâand by the ageing female body in particularâand much of this collective unease is rooted in the notion of visibility.
A central argument I make in this book is that the greater visibility of older/ageing women reveals a fundamental paradox at the heart of cultural attitudes towards ageing women. Even as it gives greater prominence to older women, current culture struggles to accommodate the reality of the ageing female body, as illustrated in the quotation about Clinton; the comments of the 56 year-old woman shown above suggests that there is also a profound effect on individual experience of ageing. The ambivalent nature of the visibility conferred on older women comes at a time when there is arguably a greater platform for older women in professional and public life than ever before; a changing social context has reconceptualised the midlife period of the lifecourse, pushing back its chronological boundaries (see Chapter 2). As a consequence the trajectories of womenâs lives may be changing; for example, a greater number of women may be working for longer so that more older women are remaining in the workplace, some of them occupying more senior/high status positionsâalthough figures on representation of women at board level suggest that gender equality is still far from being achieved.1 Yet still, the issue of the visibility conferred on ageing women, particularly by the media, remains deeply problematic. At a macro level, the public voices of mass-mediated communication remain deeply ambivalent about the âcultural work the aging, gendered, body is expected to performâ (Wearing 2007: 278).
Hurd Clarke and Griffin, in their study on
beauty work as a response to ageing, observe that for the women in their study:
perceptions of invisibility were grounded in their acute visibility as old women. The possession of physical markers of ageing rendered the women more visible as objects of discrimination⊠(2008: 669)
There is a growing acknowledgement that this phenomenon affects many midlife women, as can be seen in the developing genre of autobiographical accounts of womenâs midlife experiences e.g. Jane Shillingâs (2012) The Stranger in the Mirror , and India Knightâs (2014) In Your Prime . Furthermore, recent works such as Jeanette Kingâs (2013) Discourses of Ageing in Fiction and Feminism: The Invisible Woman and Helen Walmsley-Johnsonâs (2015) personal account The Invisible Woman: Taking on the Vintage Years suggests an increasing determination to tackle the fraught issue of older womenâs in/visibility. Despite this increased engagement with womenâs ageing, as King also argues, historically there has been a lack of attention to these issues by feminist theoristsâGermaine Greerâs (1991) classic text The Change being one of few exceptions. Whilst there may be greater representation of older women in news and media discourses, it is often ambivalent and contradictory, expressed through linguistic and visual strategies designed to encode covert negative evaluations, as I discuss in Chapter 5. Robin Lakoff wrote about the value to be gained from exploring âthe language used by and about womenâ (Lakoff 1975 [2004]: 37); equally important is the far less well-explored area of âthe language used by and about ageing womenâ (my italics).
Kathleen Woodward observes that âalong with race, gender and age are the most salient markers of social differenceâ (1999: x). However, theorisations of ageing as a socio-cultural (rather than a medical/biological) phenomenon have lagged significantly behind critical engagement with gender (see Woodward 1999, 2006; Twigg 2010). Consequently, the reciprocal impact of gender and age(ing) at a linguistic level remains under-investigated and under-theorised, so my work highlights a genuine gap in terms of academic enquiry. In the broader fields of gender and language/linguistics there is an absence of work which looks specifically at older women (as opposed to women in general), and most significantly, of studies which address (older) age as well as gender. Eckertâs (1997) work on how age intersects with individual language practice through the lifecourse does not factor in gender, and papers in the Journal of Women and Aging , one of very few journals focusing on womenâs ageing, offer some perspectives on language but in the context of social/psychological/medical/attitudinal aspects of ageing, rather than being specifically linguistic in orientation.2 Furthermore, within the expanding field of embodiment theory there is also a call for a greater emphasis on empirical insights to counterbalance the priority given to theoretical perspectives, although there is little research that to date, focuses on âthe voices that emanate from bodies themselvesâ as Nettleton and Watson observe (1998: 2). Yet the interview data gathered for my study is a powerful testament to the importance of listening to how the real voices of lived experience construct the relationship between gender and age/ingââthe often unexamined linksâ (Wearing 2007: 284)âin order to understand the heterogeneous nature and complex personal impact of ageing in social, emotional and physical terms. This book, and the research on which it is based, fits into this gap by exploring two significant but under-researched intersections: the point where age and gender as identity categories collide ideologically, socially and linguistically; and equally importantly, the often problematic relationship between public discourses and private voicesâthe complex terrain where different power agendas, individual desires and cultural expectations come together. In focusing on the reciprocal mi...