Ae night, at tea, began a plea,Within America, man:âRobert Burns, âA Fragmentâ (3â4). 1
In 1784, Robert Burns wrote a satirical ballad about the American Revolutionary War. Over nine stomping verses, Burnsâs speaker lampooned British military figures, heralded revolutionary heroes and reflected on the political chaos that engulfed Britain in the wake of Americaâs successful revolt. Such biting satire was timely given the Congress of the Confederation had ratified the Treaty of Paris, officially ending the war, earlier that year on January 14. Indeed, Burnsâs âFragmentâ, first published in the 1787 âEdinburgh editionâ of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, serves as a pertinent reminder of his engagement with contemporary transatlantic affairs and international politics.
For much of the twentieth century, however, Burns was considered a poet of limited linguistic range and geographical significance. His poetry rarely appeared in Romantic anthologies or university English curriculums, resulting in a literary reputation habitually reduced to archaic, sentimental and popular Scottish contexts. Critical approaches have dramatically evolved over the past decade, with the 250th anniversary of the poetâs birth motivating fresh scholarly interest. In 2009, the Scottish Government tied the Burns bicentenary celebrations, along with other key themes of the nationâs perceived culture and heritage, to the widely publicised âYear of Homecomingâ; an incentive that encouraged the Scottish diaspora to visit their ancestral origins (Burns continues to be of great economic importance to the tourist sector in Scotland). 2 Coinciding with the Scottish governmentâs campaign was the publication of several critical studies, essay collections and biographies that better established his cross-cultural appeal and international literary significance. 3
This upsurge in critical attention must also be explained in conjunction with wider post-devolutionary shifts in Scottish literary studies. At the opening of the newly devolved Scottish parliament in 1999, singer Sheena Wellington led opposing politicians in rousing chorus as Burnsâs âA Manâs a Man for aâ Thatâ echoed across the chambers, marking a symbolic moment in which Burnsâs egalitarian anthem helped nurture a sense of collective national virtue that transcended party politics. More concretely, however, the broader implications that devolution had on Scottish Studies have meant that Burns is finally being considered, at the very least in an academic sense, outside of the limiting parameters of strictly Scottish national frameworks.
Christopher Whyte has suggested that Scottish devolution, in inspiring a fresh sense of cultural self-confidence, might âat last allow Scottish literature to be literature first and foremost, rather than the expression of a nationalist movementâ. 4 A few years later into the new century, Gavin Wallace stated that post-devolutionary Scottish writing had been nourished by the âoutward reaching international tap-roots of Scottish cultureâ and encouraged a departure from considering Scottish texts and writers as functioning to shore up a cohesive national identity. 5 In his 2009 critical guide Scottish Literature (notably published in the same year as the 250th anniversary), Gerard Carruthers discussed how the discipline was in a period of âself-reflexive scrutinyâ, claiming there had been âtoo much emphasis upon nationalismâ at the expense of âdetailed analysis of other important contextsâ. 6 It was surely inevitable that Burns, who for so long has been popularly labelled Scotlandâs âNational Bardâ, would come under fresh academic interrogation in contexts that moved beyond the Scottish national paradigm.
The conceptual renegotiation of the ânationâ and ânational literatureâ in Scotland was also in line with, and partially a consequence of, contemporary movements in the wider fields of literary studies, history, sociology and critical theory. 7 In 2008, for example, Amritjit Singh and Peter Schmidt declared a âtransnational momentâ in literary studies in which âlocal and national narrativesâ could no longer be conceived apart from âour shared human historiesâ and âglobal interdependenceâ. 8 Prominent critics of American literature such as Paul Giles and John Carlos Rowe further expanded on literary concepts of âtransnationalityâ by revisiting canonical nineteenth-century American texts and authors that âoften appear in quite a different lightâ when examined through a âtransnational matrixâ. 9 Though the popular tag of âNational Bardâ might remain, this bookâin reflecting on the relationships between Burns and the early USAâfurther participates in the reconfiguration of the poet as a transnational figure who, both in terms of his poetic output and posthumous legacy, transgressed and continues to transgress geographical, indeed national, boundaries.
Of course, it is vital to acknowledge that Burnsâs popularity in the USA did not go entirely unnoticed in the twentieth century. Andrew Hookâs seminal 1975 study Scotland and America explored Burnsâs early American reception, and pointed the way to current transnational trends in Burns Studies, as did valuable scholarly insights from Anna M. Painter, Donald Low and James M. Montgomery. 10 Yet there is little doubt that the 250th anniversary, combined with the cultural effects of Scottish devolution and wider critical trends, has led to much wider attention on Burnsâs international significance and literary reputation.
The first spring in reconsidering Burns through a broadly transnational framework grew out of âThe Global Burns Networkâ project, founded in 2007 by Murray Pittock in collaboration with experts spread throughout England, Scotland, Spain, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, the USA and Canada. 11 One of the main incentives of the network was to encourage scholarly publication that increased awareness of Burnsâs global significance and historical reception across cultures and beyond the borders of Scotland. Streams of estuary publications and projects soon followed including âRobert Burns: Inventing Tradition and Securing Memory, 1796â1909â (which provided an online catalogue of worldwide Burns monuments); the essay collections Robert Burns in Global Culture (2011), Robert Burns and Transatlantic Culture (2012) and The Reception of Robert Burns in Europe (2014); and the commissioning of the Oxford University Press multivolume edition of Burnsâs works. 12
Laura Doyle proposes that transnational literary studies should consider how literature exists âwithin a world of encountersâ 13 and reveal layered histories, interactions and transcultural exchanges. Adopting this lens, we might draw more attention to the fact that Burns (the man), his poetry and his subsequent cultural âafterlivesâ participated in an interconnected âworld of encountersâ, particularly around the Atlantic periphery. While the focus of this book is predominantly on one nation, it also pushes for a stronger recognition of how multiple civic identities (within that nation) impacted upon Burnsâs reception and nineteenth-century legacy. The advantage of this perspective is that, in extrapolating the reasons for Burnsâs rise to prominence, we might identify several strains of national and civic appropriation, rather than solely attributing a uniform image of him being a âfriendâ to a singular, egalitarian âAmericanâ way of life, as has hitherto been the dominant critical narrative. 14 The transnational approach in this book is, then, twofold; not only does this study explore Burnsâs popularity beyond the nation of Scotland, but it also accounts for the plurality of identities existing across nineteenth-century America that influenced his reception and subsequent afterlives. As we shall see, though Burns might well be considered a â(Trans)National Poetâ (suggested in Chapter 8) it remains crucial, when considering his writing, reception and memory, to pay heed to a plurality of nationalisms and identities within transnational contexts.
A transnational approach can admittedly jar with some of the more popular (and palatable) conceptions of Burns as Scotlandâs most treasured national icon. It is increasingly known, for example, that Burns intended to sail for Jamaica in 1786 to work on a plantation. Writing to John Moore that same year, Burns lamented his possible fate as a âpoor Negro-driverâ 15 ; a chilling phrase that has been dissected by scholars in various attempts to determine the veracity of Burnsâs unfulfilled plans. Carol McGuirk has noted the significance of the letter being addressed to Moore, whose novel Zeluco (1786) exposed the âmurderous greedâ 16 and cruelty of its planter-protagonist. In writing to Mooreâno supporter of slaveryâand describing his nightmarish vision of pla...