Introduction
The twenty-first century witnessed discussions of greater scope and depth in the teaching and reform of English literacy. At first glance, āliteracy,ā referring to a skill in reading and/or writing, is easy to understand. But at the same time, literacy is both a complex and dynamic concept. Literacy is continuing to be interpreted and defined in a multiplicity of ways (Helman, 2016). The notion of literacy is influenced by not only institutional agendas, national contexts, educational policies, and cultural values, but also influenced by instruction, assessment, and classroom practices. In teaching English as a second language (L2) or a foreign language (FL), theories of literacy have evolved from those focused solely on changes in individual practices to more complex views encompassing broader social contexts (the āliterate environmentā and the āliterate societyā). These views encourage and enable literacy activities and practices to occur. As a result of these and other developments, understandings in the policy and practices associated with literacy have expanded. Literacy is no longer viewed as a simple process of acquiring basic language skills. Instead, literacy also encompasses the development of cognitive skills and the application of these skills in ways that contribute to socioeconomic development and critical reflection as a basis for personal and social change. Academics from a wide range of disciplines have engaged in an ongoing and, at times, highly contested debate over the meaning and definition of the term āliteracyā and how it is related to the broader notions of education and knowledge acquisition.
Following UNESCO (2006), literacy is delineated as including four discrete elements: literacy as an autonomous set of skills (e.g., reading, writing, and oral skills); literacy as an applied, practiced, and situated process; literacy as a learning process; and literacy as text. However, as definitions of literacy have shifted, literacy is no longer exclusively understood as an individual transformation, but as a contextual and societal one. There is a need to build an international awareness of a specific social context, e.g., for first language Chinese Speakers, in which literacy is encouraged, acquired, developed, and sustained. āChinese Speakersā is a term we use to refer to English learners in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. The four geographic locations, although different, share connected cultural and economic ties. A broader understanding of literacy for Chinese Speakers can provide fertile ground for further research in the four locations, as well as fostering an international awareness of innovation and progress toward the development of effective English literacy programs for all first language (L1) Chinese speakers across the world.
For Chinese Speakers, English has been an integral component of school curricula. English literacy has been highlighted for academic pursuit and pragmatic needs of learners. The increasing reform in English literacy instruction has brought about learning opportunities but also posed challenges for learners who need to develop English literacy skills. Researchers and classroom practitioners have paid continuous effort to English curriculum reform at different levels. For example, teaching and learning English literacy for Chinese Speakers tends to draw on āthe earlier, the betterā ideology, suggesting that an early start on English learning will enhance learnersā literacy skills. It is hoped that starting English instruction in primary school will bring more learning opportunities to learners. To meet the needs of educational reform, new syllabi have also been continuously issued to guide English teaching for the secondary school level of education. The purpose of these refinements is to address the changing situation of English language teaching (ELT) and the higher demand for English literacy skills among secondary school learners. In addition, literacy instruction in university helps learners better prepare for the competitive job market after they graduate.
However, policy-makers, school administrators, and ELT classroom practitioners have doubted the effectiveness of English literacy instruction in China (Hu, 2005). Many challenges raised by researchers include the lack of pedagogical innovations in language policy, the traditional teacher-centered language instruction, and the lack of effective language assessment methods. Many learners, having studied English for many years, still could not read and write in English. The unsatisfactory outcome made language educators reflect on the existing curricula. An effective instruction mode for English literacy was also called for to address public concerns and social needs. In addition, EFL/L2 literacy instruction research agendas for Chinese Speakers have become increasingly cognizant of various learner needs. For example, EFL/L2 learners in under-resourced communities may be academically vulnerable because of their limited exposure to academically enriched environments, compared to those learners in socioeconomically advantaged regions. As argued by Ruan and Leung (2012), the provision of enhanced opportunities to develop language literacy skills at an earlier age is one mechanism of an EFL education setting. This has been shown to predict positive academic development among EFL learners from under-resourced communities. The development of language and/or literacy skills provides the groundwork necessary for the success of English education. For these reasons, English education researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers have long been concerned with identifying and replicating high-quality instructional practices that support the teaching and learning of English literacy. These practices are particularly important for Chinese Speakers as they not only constitute the largest EFL market in the world but also are vulnerable learners who need literacy instruction for numerous reasons. However, the region lacks a synthesis of research findings related to English literacy for various educational levels: pre-primary/primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of instruction.
Therefore, we may need to rethink the practices for teaching English literacy to EFL/L2 learners, e.g., the way we go about reading interventions, teaching vocabulary, and writing assessment. English language literacy is traditionally thought of as the ability to read and write in English to an appropriate level. However, in the modern age, literacy tends to encompass more elements whilst increasing diversity and complexity. Thus, teaching literacy must satisfy the needs of learners at various educational levels (ibid.). Concerning the definition of literacy, Mackey (2004) argued that literacy has never been a set of fixed skills and that it must be dependent on the context. Meek (1991) described literacy as a part of history, and literacy changes as societies change. Edwards and Potts (2008) defined literacy not as a static and impersonal state, but rather one which is individuated and enacted as social practice. In the case of EFL/L2 settings, English literacy can be conceived as a set of actions and transitions in which EFL/L2 learners are allowed to use reading and writing for personal and social purposes. From this perspective, the basic foundational skills in learning to be literate in English for EFL/L2 learners are the skills to read and write in English in different situations for different purposes. In addition, EFL/L2 learners need to build upon these skills for higher order thinking, cognitive awareness, negotiating meaning, adapting to conventions, and familiarizing themselves with new discourses. Given that literacy is not a set of basic competences to be taught and learned based on a pattern of instruction, there is a need to explore current changes in English literacy practices and instruction.
Recent initiatives related to literacy have been undertaken. For example, the National Matriculation English Test (NMET) reform in mainland China, the āBiliterate and Trilingualā policy in Hong Kong, the role of EFL as a subject and English as a medium of instruction (EMI) with implementation of Taiwanās 12-year basic education, and the ātriliterateā and ātetra-lingualā policy in Macau. Attention has been paid to practices, instruction, and measuring levels of literacy and in the seriousness with which the outcomes from curriculum reform are regarded. The process of literacy development is complicated. This process requires an extensive knowledge base and repertoire of strategies. While reading texts, learners need to overcome greater conceptual demands and barriers, figure out more detailed graphics, and possess a greater ability to manipulate and synthesize information across a broad array of text genres. A call for reframing pedagogical practices for literacy instruction is not an ending fad (Lems & Miller, 2017). Responding to this call, this book attempts to provide teachers with strategies and new ideas to enhance L2 literacy development through a collection of studies targeted at pre-primary and primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. The region and the learners from this region deserve attention for a number of reasons. First, L1-Chinese speakers are the largest group of English language learners around the world. Second, along with this wide acceptance of the English language, education policies for Chinese Speakers have further increased learnersā exposure to English through compulsory lessons at all stages of education. Third, the introduction of EFL/L2 literacy is happening at an ever increasingly earlier age, resulting in the need for ELT researchers and practitioners to seek routes to enhance L2 literacy instruction at all levels of education.
While it can be argued that much has already been written about L2 instruction at the tertiary level, the literature published has not directly addressed the numerous issues related to L2 literacy instruction and learning for other levels of education and the attention that has been given to tertiary education has not been equally divided among the four geographic locations. Given the limited research on the literacy development of English language learners at all levels of education for Chinese Speakers, this book is of great value for both academic and practical reasons. In terms of academic reasons, first, literacy provides a good foundation for learning English in an L2 or EFL context. For example, when L2/EFL students are literate in key literacy-related skills, including phonological awareness, print concepts, decoding skills, and extended discourse, they possess funds of knowledge about various aspects of reading and writing, and this knowledge provides an experiential base for furthering their English literacy development (McKenna & Robinson, 2013). Second, the ability to acquire literacy skills is the core of lifelong learning. That means students need literacy to enable lifelong learning. For example, our knowledge environment changes fast and higher education today is much more in the mode of providing basic information literacy along with the skills needed to pursue lifelong learning and keep up with our changing world (Crawford & Irving, 2013). In other words, obtaining basic English reading and writing skills allows learners to locate and apply the right information for the right purpose throughout life. In terms of practical reasons, there is little doubt that the study of English is extremely popular with Chinese Spea...