In November 2006, Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs AsĆ TarĆ outlined an expansion of Japanâs foreign policy that he called the âArc of Freedom and Prosperity.â Japanâs foreign policy had long stood on two key pillars: the security alliance with the United States, and relations with neighboring states in Northeast Asia. The âArc,â however, would form a new pillar of diplomacy for Tokyo in addition to the existing two, and also become the most lucid case for values-based diplomacy elaborated by Tokyo in the postwar era. In his speech on the new pillar, AsĆ emphasized ââuniversal valuesâ such as democracy, freedom, human rights, the rule of law, and the market economyâ (AsĆ 2006). He colorfully added, âmany countries are now walking down the road to âpeace and happiness through economic prosperity and democracy.â And, as I am fond of saying, this is exactly the road that Japan herself walked down after the warâ (2006). As to Japanâs role in these developments, AsĆ analogized âJapan will serve as an âescort runnerâ to support these countries that have just started into this truly never-ending marathonâ (2006).
There is a double sense to this depiction of an Arc: firstly, it is a sanguine recasting of the phrase, âArc of Instability,â frequently uttered by US diplomats in the first George W. Bush administration, but secondly, the new pillar to Japanâs foreign policy would emphasize relations with states geographically spanning across Eurasia. AsĆ elaborated, âthere are the successfully budding democracies that line the outer rim of the Eurasian continent, forming an arcâ (2006). He added, âtake a look around the outer edge of Eurasia â just follow that line all the way around. This belt has seen great changes upon the end of the Cold War as the curtain was being drawn on the confrontation between East and Westâ (2006). Throughout the speech, AsĆ listed an extensive range of regions included in the Arc: Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus, continuing on to include Turkey and all of Eastern Europe. AsĆ concluded his speech with the commitment, â[i]n assisting countries as they take these steps forward, Japan aims to usher in a world order that is tranquil and peacefulâ (2006).
Momentarily setting aside disagreements with AsĆâs assertion that âbudding democraciesâ are forming along this Arc, the new pillar to Japanâs foreign policy is, indeed, a significant development from what was both a constrained and myopic foreign policy for a state of such global economic influence and substantial diplomatic potential. Nearly a decade later, in January 2016 Japanese Prime Minister Abe ShinzĆ reiterated Japanâs values-based diplomacy in a speech at the Shared Values and Democracy in Asia Symposium. Abe opened with âAsia is now poised to become a champion of democracy,â pointing out that âAsiaâs democracy has a distinct mark engraved in it from ancient times, reflecting the values we have held dear for generationsâ (2016). Abe outlined âAsian democracyâ as uniquely imparting values such as âlovingkindness,â âbenevolence,â and an âutmost priority on harmony,â specifically citing the roots of these values from Asian religious traditions: Buddhism, Confucianism, and Islam (2016).
AsĆâs pillar of an Arc of Freedom and Prosperity and Abeâs Asian Democracy speech illustrate a significant widening of Japanâs foreign policy which is an attempt to fortify Japanâs role in Asia. Systematically, this can be explained largely by the developments of the great powers in the region. The Western-led world order has come into question, particularly after the 2008 financial crisis and issues of domestic friction within Western states and institutions, leaving Asian states to look elsewhere, and in particular, at their own developed countries as models instead (PehlivantĂŒrk 2016, 3). Meanwhile, Japan has been pressured by the US since the first Gulf War to take a more active role in diplomacy and collective security in Asia. Additionally, the rise of a non-democratic China encourages Japan to seek strengthening relations with states along Chinaâs periphery, and democratic norms are a key strategy and useful narrative to do so to counterbalance a rising China. Lastly, a heightened awareness of religious violence in Asia inclines Japan to securitizeâto carry out urgent measures in response to potential threats, thus politically elevating the imperativeness of the issueâfor the sake of maintaining order in the Asian community through the promotion of stability and harmonyâvalues key to Japanâs new foreign policy pillar.
Moving Forward Back?
In practice, however, is Japanâs values-based diplomacy actually working? Is Japan assisting and cultivating âbudding democraciesâ along the Arc in its own image? If Asian democracy is based on lovingkindness, benevolence, and harmony, from an Asian Ă©pistĂšme, does it resemble anything like Western democracy? How are conflicts in Asia being securitized by Japan, while Tokyo grapples with reconceptualizing an Asia inclusive of Dharmic, Confucian, and Muslim societies? This book argues that normativity, via values-based diplomacy , is evident in Tokyoâs foreign policy with Asian states in order to secure a leading role in Asia in light of a rising China, promote stability across the continent, and meanwhile shore up its own economic and energy security stature. A core component of this values-based diplomacy is Tokyoâs own conception of democracy, which encompasses a tripartite distinction of human rights, pacifism, and economic development.
Emphasis in this book is placed on Tokyoâs foreign policy and security policy with Muslim states along the Arc (hereafter, Muslim Asia) (see Map 1.1). Muslim Asia includes societies from 27 countries in the Middle East, Post-Soviet Asia (Central Asia and the Caucasus), South Asia, and Southeast Asia with Muslim-majority populations (see Table 1.1), and also those with significant Muslim-minority populations such as India, China, Russia, and the Philippines (see Table 1.2). Simpfendorfer describes Asiaâs Muslim population âlike a spine running through the regionâ (2...