Introduction
This is the second volume of a two-volume edited collection on violence against older women. The first volume brought together contributions from international scholars and practitioners concerned with conceptualising and theorising violence against older women and documented the extent and nature of different forms of violence against older women. This second volume is concerned with understanding the consequences and impacts of violence and abuse against older women, their support needs and the existing informal and formal responses to this phenomenon. The focus of this second volume is on domestic and sexual violence (by intimate partners or other family members), although it is acknowledged that older women experience other forms of violence and abuse within and outside of intimate and familial relationships. Currently, the small pool of research examining the impacts and responses to violence against older women spans a number of fields of inquiry: elder abuse, domestic violence and sexual violence. Consequently, locating the literature is difficult as there is no single source and the existing studies adopt a variety of concepts, keywords, and theoretical and methodological frameworks. This collection brings together eight chapters dedicated to examining the needs of older victims of violence, the challenges in accessing support services and providing them, and innovative responses and interventions that are being used to prevent and respond to violence against older women. This chapter provides a brief background of the existing literature on the consequences and responses to violence against women generally, and considers what has previously been known about this in relation to older women. The structure of this collection and an overview of the contributing chapter are also provided.
Impacts and Consequences of Violence Against Women
Globally, it is estimated that at least one in three women will experience some form of physical or sexual violence in their lifetime (World Health Organisation 2013), whilst up to 75% of women experience emotional abuse each year and up to 90% experience controlling behaviour (World Health Organisation 2013).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) (2013) reports women exposed to intimate partner violence are twice as likely to have depression and almost twice as likely to have alcohol disorders. Moreover, women who have experienced physical or sexual partner violence, or both, are significantly more likely to report poor or very poor health compared with women who have never experienced partner violence. Common issues include problems with walking and carrying out daily activities, pain, memory loss and dizziness. Significantly, the WHO report demonstrates that the physical effects of violence can last long after the violence has ended.
The consequences extend beyond the individual woman. Often described as the ripple effect, violence against women impacts individuals, families, communities and wider society. The impacts are intergenerational. Children who witness domestic violence are at an increased risk of victimisation and/or perpetration of domestic violence as adults. They are also at greater risk of substance abuse and criminal behaviour, as well as mental health problems, self-harm and suicide (UNICEF 2006).
Violence against women also impacts on the wider family and friendship networks. A study by Banyard et al. (2010) found women often experienced emotional distress in response to a friendâs disclosure of sexual violence. Some scholars have described family and friends of women who have been raped or sexually assaulted as âsecondary victimsâ (Christiansen et al. 2012). Similarly, other studies have reported radiating impacts of intimate partner violence on friends, family, neighbours and co-workers (Riger et al. 2002 cited in Sigurvinsdottir et al. 2016).
Outside of the family and friendship networks, violence against women negatively impacts communities and society more generally. For example, at least a third of abused women reported domestic violence affected their ability to get to work, and nearly all felt DV negatively affected their performance at work (Wathen et al. 2015). More broadly, the estimated cost to society from domestic violence is 32.9 billion dollars in England and Wales. In Australia, the estimated figure is 11.38 billions, whilst in USA it is 5.8 billion per year (Walby 2009; End Violence Against Women Now, n.d.).
Most of the available evidence is based on the consequences and impacts of domestic violence and sexual violence on younger women; the impacts on children and the workplace are key areas of concern when assessing the ripple effects of violence against women and these relate to women of childbearing age who are eligible to work. The effects and impacts of sexual violence and domestic violence and abuse on older women have received very little research. However, there is some available evidence from the elder abuse literature. The existing elder abuse research has highlighted a number of significant adverse consequences of elder abuse, distinguished from those associated with general ageing (Wolf 1997; Wolf et al. 2002; National Research Council 2003). In a systematic review of the existing literature, Cook et al. (2011) report that older women who have experienced physical or sexual assault report greater psychiatric distress with a range of associated problems, including depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder, when compared to older women who have not experienced such events. Physical effects observed in the existing research include bruises, welts and wounds including head injuries, broken bones and sores; persistent and chronic physical pain; dehydration and nutritional deficiencies; sleep problems; increased susceptibility to new illnesses and conditions and, crucially, increased risk of premature death (Anetzberger 2004; Lachs et al. 1998; Lindbloom et al. 2007).
Taken together, the available evidence therefore indicates that older women experience similar consequences and impacts resulting from menâs violence. However, these impacts may be exacerbated by older age and associated conditions, which may in turn create additional consequences. It is clear that more research is needed into the experiences and needs of older women who experience different forms of violence and abuse in different context, to inform policy and practice developments.
Support Needs
Given the dearth of literature examining the impacts of sexual violence on older women, it is unsurprising that there is little available research which specifically looks at the support needs of older survivors of violence and abuse. From the elder abuse field, a small number of studies have examined support needs. Pritchard (2000) conducted a study into the needs of older women and the services available for victims of elder and other abuses. There were 31 key needs identified by victims in the study ranging from practical needs such as housing, food and warmth, money and benefits and general information, through to more emotional support such as to talk to someone, to be believed, to be listened to and to be given advice. Also from the elder abuse field, Nerenberg (2008) suggests victimsâ service needs span a broad spectrum and range from preventing abuse by reducing isolation and dependency and enlisting help and support; responding to and stopping ...