International Perspectives on Teaching English to Young Learners

S. Rich, S. Rich

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781137023230
• Topic: Éducation
• Subtopic: Enseignement des langues

This volume comprises 11 research-led accounts from Teaching English to Young Learner (TEYL) educators working in a range of diverse settings worldwide. The innovative practical and theoretical perspectives offer some important insights into effective TEYL pedagogy for the 21st century.

1

Taking Stock: Where Are We Now with TEYL?

Sarah Rich

The teaching of English as an additional language to young learners (here-after referred to as TEYL) has grown in the last two decades to become a truly global phenomenon. It is increasingly prioritized by governments worldwide and is possibly currently one of the world’s largest educational policy developments (Johnstone 2009). This phenomenon, as Cameron (2003) has observed, is one that needs to be taken seriously by all of those involved in TESOL, since lowering the age at which English is introduced into school systems has important implications for English language educators at secondary level and beyond. Not least this is because increasingly older learners will be those who have already encountered formal second and foreign language learning as children and will carry the impact of this, whether positive or negative, into their further studies.

Although our understanding of TEYL is steadily growing, there is still much to be achieve – not only in describing the complexities and local realities faced by young English learner educators in their work around the globe but also in identifying emerging agendas for enhancing the development of this important facet of additional language learning. Research in all shapes and forms has an important role to play, and this book, with its focus on international research accounts regarding how educators are addressing TEYL, is one that aims to make a valuable contribution to this area. To help contextualize and position the accounts to be presented in subsequent chapters, the main purpose of this introductory chapter is to explore the reasons for the growth of TEYL worldwide, the issues posed by this expansion for young learner educators and to survey the existing knowledge base regarding how best to address TEYL. This is followed by a brief introductory overview of the volume, detailing the organizational structure and the focus of each of the subsequent chapters.

Mapping the territory: young English learners in the 21st century

An important starting point for any discussion of TEYL is to establish what is meant by a young learner of English as an additional language. In the context of the global spread of TEYL and the steady downward migration of the age at which children around the world start their English language learning journey, the term ‘young learner’ has extended its reach considerably in recent years. To talk of young English learners today requires that we acknowledge the huge numbers of children now engaged in learning English. As well as those studying English in the lower grades of secondary schooling, recent estimates put the numbers of children learning English in the early stages of compulsory schooling worldwide at between four and five hundred million (Knagg and Ellis 2012). A growing number of children are also being introduced to English in pre-school programmes as well. Thus, the term ‘young learner’ is increasingly employed to cover children studying English from as early as 3 years old all the way up until the age of 13–14 (Pinter 2006: 2).

It is also important to recognize the very different linguistic environments within which children are engaged in learning English as an additional language. In some settings these children are those whose families are members of linguistic minorities within countries where English is the dominant language in the wider community, such as in the UK or USA. These children are variously described as learners of English as an additional language (EAL) or as English Language Learners (ELL). However, in the vast majority of settings these young learners are learning English as a school subject where English is not widely spoken as a first language and where there have traditionally been fewer opportunities for incidental learning outside the classroom. In the various research contributions that make up this volume, with its interest in examining international perspectives in TEYL, it is this group of children, and specifically those primarily engaged in what is typically referred to as learning English as a foreign language in formal primary and secondary school settings, that are given most attention. Broadly speaking, the term primary is employed to refer to children from the ages of 6–11 and lower secondary to refer to children aged 12–14 years of age. However, education systems around the world vary in terms of what constitutes the start ages of primary or secondary schooling, and the various contributors to this volume use these terms to reflect the educational systems in their own contexts.

Reasons for the emergence of TEYL as a global phenomenon

Underpinning the growth of the TEYL movement worldwide are two different but complementary perspectives on the importance of an early start in foreign language learning. The first of these relates to the fact that for a variety of historical, political and economic reasons English has emerged as a, if not the, major language for international communication. It is also often a primary means of communication between linguistically and culturally diverse communities within many nation states. For these reasons, as Graddol (2008, cited in Enever et al. 2009: 6) notes, English is increasingly viewed as a core generic skill by educational policy makers worldwide and an essential component of school and university curricula designed to prepare students for life and work in a globalized world.

The move to lower the age at which young people start formal studies in English as an additional language is one response to the ways in which English has come to occupy the status of global lingua franca. Alongside the growth of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), dual language curricula and the English as a medium of instruction (EMI) movement, the introduction of an early start in English language learning is seen as a way to maximize exposure to this important source of linguistic capital (Bourdieu 1997) in the 21st century. Increasingly, parents too, aware of the importance of English to educational and job prospects in a global marketplace, expend considerable effort and financial resources in ensuring their children have as many opportunities to engage with this language as possible, including an early start. The proliferation of fee-paying English clubs and classes for children that operate outside of regular school hours in many countries is one example of this. In addition, in many contexts, parents with the financial means to do so will also seek to provide their children with an alternative to state school education by enrolling them in private schools where instruction is largely or completely English medium. The growing number of short-stay study abroad programmes for children is yet further testament to parental ambitions to help ensure their children get a critical edge where English language knowledge and skill is concerned (Song 2011). Indeed, these sorts of parental actions have served to pressure governments to lower the age at which English is introduced into state school curricula in many parts of the world (Enever et al. 2009).

The second reason for the move to introduce English at the earliest stages of primary education and its inclusion in pre-school provision as well, is the widespread belief that children find it easier to learn languages and that an early start with English enables them to achieve greater overall proficiency (Nunan 2003). The evidence for this is partly anecdotal but also draws upon some of the demonstrated language gains documented in research into an early start in naturalistic settings; those where English is widely spoken outside of the classroom. While the two sets of assumptions outlined above are increasingly being called into question, as will be discussed below, the widely held view that younger is better continues to hold sway and has helped fuel the move to lower the ages at which children embark on instruction in this prized world language.

Rhetoric and reality in TEYL: What can an early start in foreign language learning achieve?

As TEYL has expanded into ‘drip feed’ settings, where English is taught primarily as a foreign language and where young learners only receive a few hours of instruction per week, the question of what can realistically be achieved has become the focus of considerable debate. Central to this debate is whether an early start can actually deliver the linguistic benefits it is widely assumed to. The theoretical premise underpinning this view is that there is a critical or sensitive period for individuals to attain full competence in their first language, normally assumed to be up to the onset of puberty (Birdsong 1999), and that if the mother tongue is not acquired before this, full competence in the language will not be achieved. Leaving aside the fact that the precise timing of this critical period is hotly contested, the question of whether this can be applied to the consideration of additional language learning (to be distinguished from bilingualism where children are exposed to two languages from birth) remains uncertain. Space does not permit me to go into a detailed account of the research that has examined this here (see Pinter 2011 for an excellent synthesis). However, what is clear is that this research has been unable to conclusively establish that an early start in additional language learning is necessarily better than a delayed start when learners have greater cognitive maturity (from the age of 10 to 11), both in terms of the speed at which the language is acquired or regarding the long-term linguistic gains and benefits.

Indeed, regarding the rate of language learning, the vast majority of research studies have demonstrated that older learners (from the age of 10 or 11) are able to make more rapid progress than those who start earlier (Marinova-Todd et al. 2000). Moreover, in terms of the ultimate levels of attainment reached by children who start early, while research suggests that those who start earlier in naturalistic settings may evidence some possible long-term advantages (notably in native-speaker-like pronunciation), there is no indication that this benefit transfers to formal foreign language learning. As Marinova-Todd et al. (2000) argue, we should therefore be very cautious in assuming universal benefits from an early start. Indeed, it is widely agreed that there are a host of other variables which need to be considered alongside age, such as motivation, aptitude and environmental constraints (Agulló 2006; Nikolov and Mihaljević Djigunović 2006).

The failure to identify age as the critical variable in successful additional language learning suggests that that parents and governments who invest in an early start in TEYL in formal schooling with the assumption that it will lead to rapid gains in language and ultimately enhanced proficiency are likely to be short-changed. Indeed, it has been argued that in terms of language pay-offs, the drive to push down the start age of English instruction is both inefficient and a waste of resources (Marinova-Todd et al. 2000). Given this, a central question that is increasingly addressed in the literature is: what are the other benefits, if any, that accrue from an early start that make this worthwhile?

Broadly speaking, the response to this question is that there are a number of qualities of younger children as learners in pre-school or the early stages of primary schooling that suggest this can be beneficial. First of all, younger children are considered to have both the emotional and intellectual readiness for additional language learning (Doyle and Hurrell 1997) Specifically, they are seen to be less anxious and inhibited than older learners, as well as enthusiastic, curious and open to new experiences (Read 2003). For these reasons, an early start is seen to be important for the generation of positive attitudes towards the language and culture (see, for example, Nikolov and Mihaljević Djigunović 2006) and to help develop the intercultural awareness needed to build the global citizenship that life on an increasingly interconnected planet requires (Read 2003; Tinsley and Comfort 2012). It has also been claimed that the regular use of two languages supports children’s cognitive development and evolving language awareness, promoting enhanced problem-solving, creativity and flexible thinking as well as enhanced communication skills in general, in both the first and additional language (Caccavale 2007; Liddicoat et al. 2007; Read 2003).

Given these benefits, it is argued that, under the right conditions, an early start is seen to advantage young learners over those who start their language learning in late childhood, particularly since some of these early benefits are seen to diminish with time. For example, it has been observed that the potential for building a positive attitude towards the speakers of the target language may be harder to achieve with older learners who have often already formed stereotypical impressions that, if negative, are difficult to shift (Barrett 2007). Similarly, motivation towards the target language has also been observed to differ between younger and older children, with some studies suggesting that older children become less motivated with time (Sharpe 2001; Williams et al. 2002). What these ideas suggest is that children who embark on additional language learning at an older age (from 7 or 8 years of age) will bring greater cognitive maturity to their language learning endeavours. However, as Johnstone (2009: 34) argues, the benefit of an earlier start is that this provides a solid attitudinal and motivational platform from which to develop the more explicit language work that is possible with these older children.

To sum up, a review of the debates regarding what is possible with an early start suggests that, as Rixon (2000) observes, attention needs to be directed away from the identification of an optimum age at which to embark on additional language learning towards an emphasis on identifying the optimum conditions that are needed to maximize the potential that an early start can afford. In particular, it is widely recognized that the promotion of quality instructional practices that are appropriate to the social, psychological, emotional and cognitive needs of children is crucial to how far these potential benefits are realized. Given this, establishing precisely what the optimum conditions of successful TEYL programmes are has been an important focus of attention in the literature over the years.

Towards an appropriate pedagogy for TEYL

The emergence of TEYL as a discrete field of practice within TESOL has a relatively short history. It was not until the 1990s that we witnessed a steady stream of publications that sought to help us begin to articulate what might be distinctive about helping children learn additional languages and some of the features of appropriate TEYL pedagogy. Reflecting back on the contributions of this decade, at the start of the 21st century Ellis (2000) paid tribute to the ways in which this literature had led us to a point of a growing confidence in the teaching of young learners and the generation of a relevant body of knowledge, much of which had not previously existed. In the intervening years since then, the proliferation of texts to further refine our understanding of what principles should underpin our work and what practices are effective in delivering these has continued unabated.

We now have a growing number of texts that provide us with a synthesis of important theoretical perspectives concerning child development and learning from which we can build an informed understanding of how to teach young learners and the ways this differs from the teaching of adults (see, for example, Cameron 2001; Moon 2000; Slatterly and Willis 2001). These have helped us appreciate the distinctive complexities of work with young learners. These have also led us to an appreciation of the need for an activity or task-based pedagogy enabling us to accommodate the very different developmental levels observable with children of a similar age and to build upon children’s natural orientation to meaning and communication through which they can be directed to notice important features of language (Cameron 2001). Moreover, drawing upon Vygotskian sociocultural theory and the work of others such as Bruner, the importance of the teacher in providing instructional practices that focus on supporting or scaffolding children’s learning is widely appreciated (Cameron 2001; Read 2006). There is also a growing awareness of the importance of setting age-appropriate objectives and pedagogic responses to meet the different levels ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Series Editor’s Preface
• Notes on Contributors
• List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
• Chapter: 1 Taking Stock: Where Are We Now with TEYL?
• Part I Starting Points for an Inquiry into TEYL Pedagogic Practice
• Part II Teaching TEYL in a Globalized World: New Opportunities and New Challenges
• Part III Introducing Innovations in TEYL Practice
• Conclusion: The Added Value of International Perspectives on TEYL
• Suggestions for Further Reading
• Index