One-on-One Language Teaching and Learning

Theory and Practice

T. Bleistein, M. Lewis

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781137413338
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Teaching Languages

With only one learner, it is possible for the teacher to give serious attention to principles of second language acquisition such as motivation, error treatment, and learner autonomy, which are more difficult to address in classroom learning. This book combines theory with practical suggestions, making it invaluable for language tutors.

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Introduction to One-on-One Learning and Teaching

Let’s assume that you are reading this book because you are doing, or are interested in doing, some one-to-one language tutoring or learning. The history of one-on-one learning is both rich and lengthy (Lepper et al., 1997). The Ancient Greeks made use of tutors all those centuries ago when Socrates tutored a young slave boy. From ancient times to the present, one-on-one instruction has led to significant learning gains and provided personalized learning that can’t be achieved in larger language classrooms.

This first chapter explores how to capitalize on the advantages of one-to-one learning while avoiding some of the challenges. In addition, we describe the book’s style, which is a combination of a thoughtful, academic approach and practical examples. Given the intended readership, the book is more than a “ how-to” manual. It addresses the theoretical and practical issues faced by language tutors and learners.

In this chapter, we’ll consider questions like the following:

• What is the role of theory in the practice of tutoring and learning language one-on-one?
• What are the advantages and challenges to the one-on-one learning environment?
• Why is there a debate about tutoring among language educators and language planners?

Scope of this book: theory and application

The current volume integrates theory on second language acquisition and language teaching and learning into each chapter. The theoretical foundation provides the reader with more than a toolbox of activities to select from; through examining research and theory, tutors develop a general structure for sessions and are better equipped to address many of the common issues faced in language learning and teaching specific to a one-on-one setting. In addition, we include many examples drawn from people’s experiences in different parts of the world, teaching and learning a range of languages. These show that there is not just one simple formula for one-to-one language teaching, and also provide stories from real language learners and tutors. Practical examples and activities are also included, so the tutor or learner can apply concepts into their own sessions.

In our examples we try to acknowledge the range of situations faced by the book’s readers: the experienced and the beginners, the highly qualified and those who speak a language but know nothing about teaching. There is also the range of languages to be taught, although teaching methods and approaches do not change fundamentally whichever language is being learned.

As with so many topics, this one could have been carved up in many different ways. With the help of the index and table of contents, readers will be able to track specific concerns, some of which reappear from chapter to chapter.

Overview of one-on-one language teaching and learning

One-on-one learning includes a number of initial variables that affect the experience. For example, do the learner and tutor have the same first language? Another aspect is the length of tutoring. In this first chapter, we’ll briefly address some of these issues, as well as cover them in greater depth in subsequent chapters.

First, let’s consider the languages spoken by the two participants. If the tutor and learner share a language, this can be an advantage in the early stages of the lessons, especially for explaining subtle differences in usage. Later on, though, the tutor needs to be careful not to use the shared language at a time when it would be more useful (although perhaps not easier) to use the language being learned.

A second variable is the purpose for learning the language. Whereas in classroom learning a teacher must work to integrate a variety of goals, the great advantage of having only one student is that the lessons can be tailored to that person’s purpose for having the lessons. The challenge to a tutor may be to search out the most appropriate materials, particularly when the purpose is quite specific such as:

• Passing an examination
• Dealing with clients on the telephone
• Answering company emails
• Visiting a country as a tourist.

All of these may go beyond traditional textbooks. This is one of the topics we expand upon in Chapter 7.

Then there is the variable of time available versus the time needed for effective learning. After all, language classes can meet for eight hours every day of the week. Should the tutor and learner meet only once a week with tasks for the learner to complete between lessons or more often? Some learners ask for more, but the tutor-learner relationship can be quite intense, so sitting and studying together for hours on end is not usually a good solution. This topic is also addressed in greater detail in Chapter 7.

One potentially delicate question is the financial compensation for lessons. Free lessons are often given by community volunteers to individuals such as refugees or migrants to a new country. This arrangement is spelled out beforehand, usually through an interpreter, so that embarrassment is minimized. At the other end of the scale an agency may recruit tutors who are paid quite well for their work, usually based on their qualifications and experience.

Of course there are other variables, too, which we shall explore through the book, such as whether tutor and learner have anything in common apart from the lessons, whether the learner is an adult or a child, and the length of time it is useful to have just one tutor, before moving on to other options.

Capitalizing on the benefits of one-to-one learning and teaching

Your Turn

Before reading on, make a list of the advantages and disadvantages that you can imagine related to one-on-one language learning.

Research has shown that one-one-one tutoring can be more effective than classroom instruction (e.g., Bloom, 1984; Merrill et al., 1995). Merrill and colleagues outline the benefits of quality tutors who are able to “maintain a delicate balance, allowing students to do as much of the work as possible and to maintain a feeling of control, while providing students with enough guidance to keep them from becoming frustrated or confused” (1995, p. 280). Ireson (2004) added to the list of reasons why tutoring is so successful by highlighting the flexibility in length of sessions and focus in instruction.

Another advantage of one-to-one tutoring is that an individual’s special strengths can be catered to in a way that is nearly impossible in a large language classroom. Individualized learning is most successful when there is a skilled tutor and a motivated learner. Below we’ll explore some of the reasons why a one-on-one learning experience may be chosen.

Explicit learning

Incidental learning is associated with being in a place where the target language is spoken all around, and is gradually picked up through interaction with others. Someone who has requested a tutor has clearly opted for the opposite of that: explicit learning. In some regions, a classroom learning environment may not be available to provide explicit instruction or the learner is not a good fit for the classrooms that are available. For example, a learner may live in a small town where there are few learners of the local language or an adult’s schedule or ability may not fit well with local university language classes. For others, there are a number of classroom options available, but they prefer to have lessons structured around their needs or feel more comfortable in the one-on-one environment.

Focus on the learning process

Because learner and tutor will have their eyes on the future, and on eventually reaching whatever outcomes have been set, introducing ways of learning during lessons is also very important. Tutors can prepare an activity, have the learner work through it and then analyze not just what has been learned but how the learning has taken place. This of course leads to greater autonomy between lessons and in the future. Amongst other things, where it is helpful, the tutor can help the learner to “formulate explicit rules” (Ellis & Shintani, 2014, p. 311). Here the tutor has the choice between direct teaching of the rules or asking questions that assist the learner to discover them. This might take the form of a puzzle to solve or information to locate and analyze. For example, a student may be confused about usage of a word, so together common collocations can be explored.

Since ancient times, people have learned all sorts of subjects by asking questions. A tutor may opt for a Socratic style of tutoring where “tutors seek to draw as much as possible out of their students and to make learning an active and constructive process” (Lepper et al., 1997, p. 133). A Socratic method relies heavily on questions, yet Graesser and Person (1994) discovered that student questions were 240 times more frequent in a tutoring session than a classroom environment, but there was only a slight increase in teacher or tutor questions. While their research was not focused on language learning, it highlights one potential benefit of one-on-one learning: students can guide the learning process. Both Socratic inquiry and student agency can be strengths in the one-on-one setting.

Introduce strategy training

Tutoring settings allow learners to focus on their individual strengths and weaknesses as well as the best strategies for learning. Ellis and Shintani (2014) offer three pieces of advice for including learning strategies. They believe that a learner needs to be led step-by-step through the procedure recommended. One example would be going beyond vague advice about how to work out meaning from context to showing, step-by-step, how to discover the meaning of a sentence in context. One-to-one learning is ideally suited to doing this at the pace of the learner.

Their second piece of advice is that this process must be authentic, not using photocopied sentences taken at random from some source. Choose a piece of text or an audio-recording where attention can be focused on the whole meaning before plunging into specific words and phrases. Thirdly, they say, encourage learners, while practising, to put into words the steps they are going through. Chapter 5 covers the use of strategies in language learning in more detail.

Perceptions of aptitude

People have different ways of expressing what is meant by “aptitude” for learning. We speak of being “good at math,” “artistically gifted,” and “having a way with languages.” Ellis and Shintani (2014) point out that while some aspects of aptitude are fixed (such as a strong auditory ability), others are variable. Tutoring requires choosing appropriate materials and activities and attending to the learner’s level, concentration, and feelings. Sometimes it is simply a perception that must be overcome. A learner may not believe learning is possible, so the tutor can help to build a sense of success or learner agency, where the learner begins to feel greater control over the language acquisition process. Once a learner sees success as possible, learning can occur.

Promote motivation

We can all agree that motivation is important, but what can the tutor do about it when the learner has times of discouragement? Mischo and Haag (2002) conducted research in Germany on the impact of private tutoring on both motivation and grades. Pre-and post-tests were administered to evaluate progress in English, French, Latin, and mathematics for both a control and tutored group. The tutored learners’ grades were significantly higher after tutoring. In addition, the students reported higher levels of motivation.

Individualized plans and clear goals for learning can help to motivate the learner when feelings of discouragement or dissatisfaction with progress arise. In a classroom setting, it is difficult to monitor students’ goals and the ebb and flow of motivation. The one-on-one setting allows for motivation to be a central focus. Chapter 4 as well other chapters cover motivation in greater detail and help outline a process to involve the learner in goal setting activities that promote motivation.

Affordability

Tutoring may initially seem cost prohibitive, but it can be cheaper and more feasible than paying for a course of study at a university where a learner may sign up for course, but only be able to attend a few sessions. With tutoring, the learner generally only pays for the sessions that occur. For parents, they may feel the public education system is inadequate, so they opt to overcome some of the shortcomings through one-on-one tutoring. Supplemental private tutoring can be more affordable than private schooling for children.

Overcoming the limitations of one-to-one learning and teaching

The previous section has an optimistic heading, emphasizing the positives of individual tutoring. We would not be honest, though, if we didn’t draw attention to some drawbacks, none of which cannot be overcome. Some years ago, when we interviewed one-to-one tutors and learners (Lewis, 1998), some concerns were exp...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Series Editor’s Preface
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• List of Abbreviations
• 1 Introduction to One-on-One Learning and Teaching
• 2 Learning and Tutoring Options
• 3 The Tutor–Learner Relationship
• 4 Individual Differences in One-on-One Teaching
• 5 Learning Styles and Approaches to Teaching One-on-One
• 6 Preparation for Sessions
• 7 Choosing Materials and Structuring Sessions
• 8 Teaching One-on-One Sessions
• 9 Technology and One-on-One Teaching
• 10 Focus on Skills
• References
• Index