Asian Foreign Policy in a Changing Arctic

The Diplomacy of Economy and Science at New Frontiers

Aki Tonami

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9781137537461
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• Subtopic: Public Policy
• Index: Politics & International Relations

This book examines the growing interest by Asian states, which are normally considered as 'outsiders' in the Arctic governance system. Whilst existing research asserts that Asian states are mostly interested in the economic aspect of the changing Arctic, including its mineral and fossil sources and the opening up of new sea routes, the book argues that the relation between Asian states and the Arctic is much more complex and dynamic, grounded in their unique perspective on national security and the role of economic development in securing their national interests.

© The Author(s) 2016

Aki TonamiAsian Foreign Policy in a Changing Arctic10.1057/978-1-137-53746-1_1

Begin Abstract

1. Introduction

Aki Tonami¹

(1)

Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Abstract

Climatic changes and their effects in the Arctic have revealed the need for significant adjustments to the existing Arctic governance system. One example of this is the growing interest by Asian states, which are normally considered as Arctic “outsiders.” Existing research asserts that Asian states are mostly interested in the economic aspect of the changing Arctic, be it vast deposits of mineral sources, fossil sources, or the opening of the new sea routes, with an underlying assumption that they take a Machiavellian approach in their international relations. On the contrary, I argue that the relation of Asian states and the Arctic is much more complex and dynamic, grounded on their unique perspective on national security and the role of economic development in securing their national interests.

Keywords

The ArcticClimate changeArctic CouncilEast AsiaNon-Arctic observersEconomic diplomacy

End Abstract

The Changing Arctic

Located at the northernmost point of the Earth, the Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the five major oceans, covering only 3 % of global surface area. Since the first explorers reached the North Pole in the beginning of the twentieth century, the Arctic Region has remained as a peripheral region of the coastal states. Partly because it is covered by thick ice (almost fully during the winter and 50 % during the summer), the Arctic has often been described as a pristine, white Northern hinterland disconnected from any human activities or civilization.

During World War II (WWII), the strategic value of the region rapidly increased as the Japanese attacked the Aleutian Islands and as “staging routes” were established, cutting northwest and northeast across the Arctic to transport aircraft to Britain and Russia (Farish 2006). At the dawn of the Cold War, the Arctic became a more strategically crucial region, as it became clear that the two major protagonists of the Cold War, the USA and the Soviet Union, bordered on each other at the top of the globe. As a result, the Arctic became a sensitive area with strategic weapons systems installed.

Following the end of the Cold War, views on the Arctic shifted once more from the strategic, security-focused role to the growing body of evidence from the Arctic, pointing to the effects of global warming and climate change. From the 1980s, reports began to emerge that the Arctic was undergoing dramatic climatic changes, and that Arctic ice was melting at an unprecedented rate. Striking images of polar bears stranded on melting ice defined a changing Arctic in the public mind. It was therefore groundbreaking when then-president of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, gave a speech in Murmansk in 1987 introducing the Murmansk Initiative to establish the Arctic as a “zone of peace.” The Speech included six proposals. The first two proposed the establishment of a nuclear weapon-free zone in northern Europe, reducing military activities, and the stimulation of confidence-building measures in the northern seas. The other proposals concerned civilian, economic cooperation in developing natural resources, coordination of scientific research, cooperation in environmental protection, and the opening of the Northern Sea Route (NSR) to international shipping (Heininen 2012). As the Cold War waned and eventually ended in 1989, the Arctic became a focal point for a variety of activities involving transnational cooperation (Young 2005).

By the beginning of the 1990s, the international community had begun to pay increased attention to the relationship between economic development and its influence on the natural environment, particularly climatic changes through greenhouse gas emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change, released in 2007, set out that the average temperature of the Arctic Region had increased by 2 °C, resulting in a massive decrease in sea-ice extent (Anisimov et al. 2007). While the future and ongoing climatic changes in the Arctic were considered problematic, some began to respond to the new reality by discussing the possibility of exploring the impenetrable Arctic Region as the ice melted—and even the significance of a near-ice-free Arctic future. One consequence of this has been the focus on the opening up of the NSR. The Soviet Union and subsequently Russia had operated in the NSR previously, but its use did not really grow despite optimism from Russia. The NSR has never been sufficiently ice-free to allow significant maritime transportation between Europe and Asia (Ho 2010). The retreat of the Arctic sea-ice certainly appeared as good news for ice-closed, less wealthy regions of the Arctic. It was in this context that, in 2007, two Russian mini submarines reached the seabed below the North Pole and planted a one-metre-high titanium Russian flag on the undersea Lomonosov ridge, to commemorate Russia’s claim that the North Pole is directly connected to its continental shelf (Parfitt 2007).

Indeed, the Arctic is becoming ice-free for longer periods and over a greater area for each passing year. Scientists have proven that even a small loss of the ice sheet of Greenland raises global sea levels. Simultaneously, these seemingly negative changes to the Arctic have thrown light on the new possibilities in the Arctic Region. The Arctic has extensive hydrocarbon deposits already discovered, as well as vast expanses yet to be explored. The most recent Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal, conducted in 2008 by the US Geological Survey (USGS), estimated that nearly one quarter of the earth’s undiscovered recoverable petroleum resources are in the Arctic Region: 13 % of its oil, 30 % of its natural gas, and 20 % of its liquefied natural gas (US Geological Survey 2008). Other precious metals such as gold, nickel, and rare-earth minerals are supposedly buried under the Arctic ice. There is also the possibility of new shipping routes. The Northeast Passage, approximately 3000 miles across the top of Eurasia, connects the Atlantic to the Pacific. The NSR, which runs from the Kara Gate to the Bering Strait, connects Europe and Asia across the High North. During the summer months, when the ice level is at its lowest, these new shipping routes can cut the shipping distance between Asia and Europe by as much as 30 % compared to conventional routes such as via the Suez Canal. At the beginning of the new Millennium, some dreamed of a new gold rush—an Arctic gold rush (Arnsdorf 2014).

Map 1.1 Map of Asia and the Arctic region. Mountain High Maps® Copyright © 1993 Digital Wisdom®, Inc.

Arctic Governance

Gorbachev’s Murmansk Speech was the beginning of a process that eventually led to the establishment of important governance regimes in the Arctic, such as the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in 1991. ¹ The AEPS eventually led to the founding of the Arctic Council (AC) in 1996. ²

The AC, founded in 1996, has become the leading intergovernmental forum for cooperation in and about the Arctic Region. The Council is “a high level intergovernmental forum,” “promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic states, with the involvement of the Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues,” that takes up “issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic.” ³ The Council consists of Member States, Permanent Participants, and Observers. Currently, Member States of the AC are the eight Arctic States: Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the USA (Arctic Council 2015a). ⁴ Permanent Participants are made of organizations representing Arctic Indigenous Peoples. ⁵ Observer status is open to non-Arctic states, intergovernmental and inter-parliamentary organizations, and global and regional or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). At present there are 12 non-Arctic states (France, Germany, The Netherlands, Poland, Spain, UK, People’s Republic of China (PRC), Italian Republic, Japan, Republic of Korea (ROK), Republic of Singapore, Republic of India), 9 intergovernmental and inter-parliamentary organizations, and 11 NGOs admitted as Observers (Arctic Council 2015b).

Unlike Antarctica, which is the South Pole region and a continent with no indigenous population, the Arctic is an area surrounding the Arctic Ocean located in the north polar region and has indigenous population. Partly due to these geographical differences, the Arctic is not governed by a comprehensive regional treaty-based regime like the Antarctic Treaty but covered by a multi-layered legal and institutional framework. The so-called Spitsbergen Treaty or Svalbard Treaty (Treaty between Norway, the USA, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris, 9 February 1920) is one of the oldest yet most relevant international agreements on the Arctic for Arctic and non-Arctic states alike. The Treaty recognizes the sovereignty of Norway over the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard (at the time called Spitsbergen), while giving the signatories equal rights to engage in commercial activities (mainly coal mining) on the islands (Wikisource 2013). Ny-Ålesund on the island of Spitsbergen in Svalbard is a popular location for non-Arctic states to base research stations.

The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides the legal framework to control activities on, over, and beneath the Arctic Ocean. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), established in 1948, is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) responsible for regulating international shipping. In November 2014, IMO adopted the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) (International Mariti...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Frontmatter
• 1. Introduction
• 2. China’s Arctic Policy
• 3. Japan’s Arctic Policy
• 4. Arctic Policy of South Korea (Republic of Korea)
• 5. Singapore’s Arctic Policy
• 6. India’s Arctic Policy
• 7. Conclusions
• Backmatter