Authority, Gender and Emotions in Late Medieval and Early Modern England

Susan Broomhall

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781137531162
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: European Medieval History
• Index: History

This collection explores how situations of authority, governance, and influence were practised through both gender ideologies and affective performances in medieval and early modern England. Authority is inherently relational it must be asserted over someone who allows or is forced to accept this dominance. The capacity to exercise authority is therefore a social and cultural act, one that is shaped by social identities such as gender and by social practices that include emotions. The contributions in this volume, exploring case studies of women and men's letter-writing, political and ecclesiastical governance, household rule, exercise of law and order, and creative agency, investigate how gender and emotions shaped the ways different individuals could assert or maintain authority, or indeed disrupt or provide alternatives to conventional practices of authority.

1

From Letters to Loyalty: Aline la Despenser and the Meaning(s) of a Noblewoman’s Correspondence in Thirteenth-Century England

Kathleen Neal

Sometime between the summer of 1273, and early August 1274, the Countess of Norfolk, Aline la Despenser, sent a letter to the Chancellor of England.¹ This was, in many ways, a completely unremarkable letter concerning a rather banal administrative matter; hardly the place one might naturally look for evidence of intersections between gender, emotion, and authority. Yet, as I argue in this chapter, Aline’s letter was in fact a finely tuned articulation of affective persuasion. The beauty of its design lay in a delicate weaving between observing the expectations shaping letters of governance, and transgressing them in targeted and gendered ways which become clear when the letter is read against its particular context. Through simultaneous reproduction and disordering of the rules of letter-writing, it sought to evoke a range of positive responses in one person – the chancellor to whom it was addressed – in ways uniquely reflective of the relationship between him and its sender, the countess. Close reading of Aline’s letter thus reveals how all senders of letters to royal officers might manipulate affective rhetoric to achieve their political, legal, or fiscal aims: it is a case study of how emotion and authority regularly interacted in medieval England. Further, it illuminates the circumstances in which women could enter epistolary exchange of this kind, and the gendered rhetorical strategies they might use when the opportunity to do so arose. The letter is an especially rich source for interrogating how women accessed this particular discourse of authority, and how they adopted and adapted expected, masculine forms of rhetorical presentation to political ends.

The letter in question is first and foremost a straightforward request for the issue of certain letters patent by the chancellor, whose task it was to authorize such written instruments with the Great Seal. The request was entirely within the chancellor’s power to grant and he granted many similar requests, although there is no extant evidence that he granted this particular one. Specifically, the letter requested the issue of letters patent of safe conduct for some 30 sacks of wool to be exported to the continent from the Earl of Norfolk’s estates to cover the debts he had incurred in crossing the Channel to meet the new king, Edward I, recently returned from crusade. In translation, it reads:

To her own dear friend and well-wisher, Lord Walter de Merton, chancellor of our lord the King of England, from Aline la Despenser, Countess of Norfolk, greetings and dear friendship. Know, dear lord, that my lord the earl has commanded his bailiffs that they cause his wool to be transported overseas to pay for his debts which he has incurred through his passage to meet our lord the king. For which reason, lord, I pray you that you should wish to grant and to send us the king’s letters patent of safe conduct by land and sea concerning the same wool, which amounts to 30 sacks or a little more. Lord, do this much for our prayer, if it should please you, that my lord should be grateful and thank you upon his return.²

The extant records of the thirteenth-century Chancery and Exchequer are full of similar requests for legal, para-legal, and fiscal preferment: it was documents like these through which high medieval English governance was produced and maintained. High medieval English rulers depended on letters and letter-writers. Kings and their officials were rarely able to assert control by force;³ instead, persuasion was essential to effective government and diplomacy, both of which relied on maintaining stable and functional relationships. Furthermore, governance was more often reactive than proactive. The actions of royal officials were provoked by specific requests or demands more often than by centrally determined policy. Thus, both for the governors and the governed, letters were among the key written instruments for effecting real political outcomes and regulating political life.

The scope of letters addressed to royal officials varied widely, yet because of the letter’s role in governance, all such letters represented political exchanges to some degree. Letters sent by the Prince of Wales addressing matters of Anglo-Welsh relations,⁴ for example, had considerably wider political ramifications than the countess’s request for a relatively routine letter patent. Nevertheless, by virtue of being produced and sent, both laid claim to legitimate participation in a particular discourse of authority. This discourse operated within a set of rules, both articulated and implicit.

Following the explicit theories and unspoken expectations of epistolarity at the time, the countess’s letter observes a five-part structure in which each section performs a specific rhetorical role. It makes use of a polite and appropriate address (salutatio); briefly explains the need for the letters requested (exordium and narratio); articulates a request for letters patent providing the detail necessary for their production (petitio); and closes with an expression of gratitude (conclusio). In these general features it is entirely unremarkable, and resembles nearly every other extant thirteenth-century letter of request addressed to a royal official. It demonstrates the degree to which the countess and/or her household staff, along with many hundred other correspondents, were familiar with the epistolary style of Chancery, and the requirements of letters patent.

It ought not to surprise us that Aline should have acquired such familiarity. Aristocratic women were expected to send and receive letters as part of their work of estate and household management. For instance, in his Rules, Robert Grosseteste, the famous Bishop of Lincoln, urged Countess Margaret de Lacy to employ ‘her letters’ to instruct her householders, agents, and labourers in their duties.⁵ Indeed, as Philippa Maddern has argued, ‘any woman with rights over, or possession of, land or resources had to be prepared to take some share in the massive textual activity involved in determining and maintaining ownership’.⁶

In the thirteenth century, the ‘share’ taken in textual activity such as letter-writing by any aristocratic person, man or woman, would likely have consisted of instructing or dictating to a scribe. The final product was the result of collaboration between sender and scribe, both of whom required some working understanding of the governing expectations of the genre. The scribe, whose education equipped him in the ars dictaminis, or art of letter-writing, would take some degree of responsibility for shaping the content into an appropriate form. The sender would then read or listen to drafts of their letters and approve them prior to sending.⁷

Despite the ubiquity of letters and letter-writing among the aristocracy for the management of their estates, few women figure among the correspondents whose letters have survived. Occasionally, model letters with notional female senders are included in formulary collections,⁸ suggesting that women participated in epistolarity often enough that scribes saw value in being prepared for the eventuality. Nevertheless, the infrequency of such examples reinforces the overriding masculine focus of scribal training and work. The typical concerns of contemporary theoretical and practical manuals for clerks point to an assumption of and aspiration to a career writing letters (and other documents) largely for noblemen.⁹ At the level of the realm, therefore, authority through letters was gendered in ways which largely excluded female participation. Aline’s letter is thus both expected and unexpected. Interrogating this tension is a key goal of this chapter.

Among the implicit rules of corresponding with the officers of the crown was that participation was restricted within certain networks of sociability. Unlike other avenues and written genres through which one might make requests of royal government in the late thirteenth century, letters relied on a specific and personal relationship between sender and addressee. Among the extant letters of this period, pre-existing personal connections can normally be traced between sender and addressee where the correspondents can be identified, and letters of request on behalf of those apparently without acquaintances at court were generally written by their better connected friends or associates.¹⁰ Furthermore, contemporary theories of letter-writing described a rhetoric of address that reflected the societal, structural relationship between correspondents, based on their nobility and office, and also on degrees of personal affinity and affective bonds.¹¹ The epistolary codes which regulated appropriate articulation in letters of governance were thus inherently personal and emotional, even while the content might be procedural and bureaucratic.

This underpinning assumption, in which the exchange of letters of governance was both affective and instrumental, was also strongly gendered. Although women were embedded in aristocratic networks of sociability,¹² and expected to be competent in textual administration, corresponding with the crown in the thirteenth century was principally a male activity. In the first place, the business in which the king’s clerks were engaged was chiefly concerned with legal and para-legal matters of rule and lordship, effectively restricting relevant letter exchange to those members of the aristocracy with full legal competence. Contemporary correspondence associated with the departments of Chancery and Exchequer and preserved in The National Archives,¹³ for example, addresses the appointment of justices and escheators, the assignment of cases to a particular hearing date or justice, instructions to justices, sheriffs, and other royal agents, pleas and essoins, the distribution of funds for ‘public’ works such as bridge building, grants of rights such as estovers or timber for building works, and financial or mercantile protections, licences, and safe conducts. The forms of these letters and their content support the legal association of correspondence of this kind. While the overall structure of letters derived from the ars dictaminis, the genre of letters of governance was dominated by the model of the writ, the crown’s formal instrument of legal instruction. Since full legal competency was not available to most women, except in certain specific jurisdictions or circumstances, women were not frequently represented in this kind of correspondence.

Letters of governance thus reproduced the wider social order, in which women were legally subject to the authority of a governing, male presence, typically a father or husband. The extant letters of SC 1 bear out the sugges...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Notes on Contributors
• Introduction: Authority, Gender, and Emotions in Late Medieval and Early Modern England: Susan Broomhall
• 1 From Letters to Loyalty: Aline la Despenser and the Meaning(s) of a Noblewoman’s Correspondence in Thirteenth-Century England: Kathleen Neal
• 2 The Role of Exempla in Educating through Emotion: The Deadly Sin of ‘lecherye’ in Robert Mannyng’s Handlyng Synne (1303–1317): Anne M. Scott
• 3 How to be ‘Both’: Bilingual and Gendered Emotions in Late Medieval English Balade Sequences: Stephanie Downes
• 4 St Richard Scrope, the Devout Widow, and the Feast of Corpus Christi: Exploring Emotions, Gender, and Governance in Early Fifteenth-Century York: P. J. P. Goldberg
• 5 Anxieties with Political and Social Order in Fifteenth-Century England: Merridee L. Bailey
• 6 Raising Girls and Boys: Fear, Awe, and Dread in the Early Modern Household: Stephanie Tarbin
• 7 Authority in the French Church in Later Sixteenth-Century London: Susan Broomhall
• 8 ‘The Pattern of All Patience’: Gender, Agency, and Emotions in Embroidery and Pattern Books in Early Modern England 150: Sarah Randles
• 9 A Subject for Love in The Merry Wives of Windsor: Diana G. Barnes
• 10 Emotions, Gender Expectations, and the Social Role of Chancery, 1550–1650: Amanda L. Capern
• Select Bibliography
• Index