Introduction
In this chapter, we foreground the context of young adolescent learning in schools, emphasising that engaging young adolescents in learning is crucial to achieving optimal educational outcomes. We explain our contention that all young adolescent students are at risk of disengagement or underachievement . Our approach reflects current educational trends away from a deficit view of young adolescents at risk of disengaging from schooling towards a more holistic view of the factors that lead to student disengagement. Many experts argue that mainstream approaches to education, as currently constructed, may not satisfactorily match the needs of young adolescents due to the variety of factors inside and outside school that contribute to their disengagement. In this chapter, we explore the challenge of engaging young adolescents in learning, including those students with complex learning needs, or who exhibit challenging or aggressive behaviour, or who have additional social, health or welfare support needs; and interrogate the factors that may contribute to student disengagement and those that enhance engagement.
Young Adolescent Learners
The idea of adolescence has been around for more than 100 years with theorist G. Stanley Hall credited with bringing the idea of adolescence to prominence, positing that all individuals experience predictable maturation in physical, social, emotional and cognitive domains (see also Bahr, 2017). This developmentalism lens characterised adolescence as a time of storm and stress, of raging hormones, and of transition from a child to an adult (Garvis et al., 2018).
Over the last hundred years there have been many educators, theorists and researchers who have contributed to our evolving understanding of adolescence, extending beyond this rather narrow conceptualisation, including, for example, Vygotsky (1978) who points to the interplay between socio-cultural factors and adolescents. Importantly, there is still no one single definition of adolescence that is universally accepted. Among the aspects that remain contested is whether age can be used as a way of constructing adolescence. In contemporary times, the beginning of adolescence may be argued to be as young as 11 or 12 years and extending through to the age of 20ā22 years, based on markers such as the onset of puberty as a starting point and completion of formal education as an end point. More latterly, adolescence is described as the period of life between childhood and adulthood (Steinberg, 2010). Adolescence is also more likely to be regarded as a unique journey with predictable patterns that are individually experienced. Furthermore, adolescence is also typically identified as a time of opportunity and growth, marking a shift from a generally negative to a more positive discourse.
The extent of changes including those that occur physically, psychosocially, emotionally, cognitively and spiritually during early adolescence is second only to that experienced in the first two years of life (Pendergast, 2017a). The changes are interrelated and overlapping and impacted by many factors (Caskey & Anfara, 2014). In addition, we can expect the most differentiation from individual to individual, as for each person the journey through adolescence is unique, with changes occurring at different times and at different rates. The impact this brings to classrooms is wide differentiation, both in the usual sense of socio-economic status (SES), ethnicity, gender, location, and other generally accepted variables, but also in terms of the widest range of maturation diversity across the developmental domains.
The developmental changes that typically occur in adolescence are intertwined with each other, along with sociocultural and environmental influences and experiences. A summary of some of the key developmental aspects of adolescence and the nature of these changes follows in Box 1.1.
Box 1.1 Summary of key changes during early adolescence
Physical development |
ā¢ In early adolescence, the body undergoes more physical change than at any other time, apart from the age of birth to two years; ā¢ The rate of growth is rapid and uneven, with each individual following a similar pattern; ā¢ Changes include increases in height, weight, and internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems; ā¢ Puberty occurs at the outset of early adolescence, triggered by the release of hormones which lead to the development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., breast development in girls, facial hair in boys); ā¢ Increased hormone production affects all aspects of the body, especially skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes; ā¢ Growth spurts typically occur about two years earlier in girls than boys. |
Social development |
ā¢ Adolescents establish a sense of identity and establish a role and purpose; ā¢ Body image is a key factor in developing a sense of self and identity; ā¢ Family and, increasingly, peers play an important role in assisting and supporting the adolescent to achieve adult roles; ā¢ Social and emotional development are closely intertwined as young people search for a sense of self and personal identity. |
Emotional development |
ā¢ Individuals develop in the way they think and feel about themselves and others; ā¢ The development and demonstration of individual emotional assets, such as resilience, self-esteem and coping skills, are heightened; ā¢ Schools are important sites for social and emotional learning and have developed policies and programs around student wellness, often with a focus on a strengths-based approach. |
Cognitive development |
ā¢ Cognition is the process involving thought, rationale and perception; physical changes of the brain that occur during adolescence follow typical patterns of cognitive development; ā¢ Cognitive development is characterised by the development of higher-level cognitive functioning that aligns with the changes in brain structure and function, particularly in the prefrontal cortex region; ā¢ Structural and functional brain changes affect the opportunity for increased memory and processing and may also contribute to vulnerability, such as risk-taking and increased sensitivity to mental illness; ā¢ Sensitive brain period, that is, a time when brain plasticity is heightened. During this time, there is an opportunity for learning and cognitive growth as the brain adapts in structure and function in response to experiences. |
Young Adolescent Learners and Education Policy
Sustainable Development Goals
Framing education policies from 2015 to 2030 for the 194 member states, the United Nationsā resolution adopted on the 25th September 2015 known as Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015) sets out a global agenda that is characterised as āa plan of action for people, planet and prosperityā (p. 3). It outlines a commitment to 17 aspirational global goals, often referred to as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which have 169 targets between them. The agenda has a deliberate approach and Goal 4 relates to quality education, with the goal to: ā[E]nsure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for allā (United Nations, 2015, p. 11). At the time of the adoption of the resolution, every country in the world fell short on more than half of the 17 SDGs and a quarter of the worldās countries fell short on all 17 of the goals (Bauer, 2016).
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