1 Introduction: Climate Change Adaptation and Urban Growth Conundrum in Africa
Climate change poses unprecedented challenges to human survival . Scientific consensus indicates that human contribution to climate change is considerable (IPCC 2014). The costs of climate change have far-reaching implications , and no country is immune, whether rich or poor, big or small, strong or weak (Atapattu 2016), although the degree of impacts varies. In Schellnhuberâs view (2013), it is no secret that developing countries experience the adverse effects of climate change more than the developed countries. Prior to the turn of the twenty-first century when climate change was virtually a non-issue as unnoticeable natural climatic variations characterised the period.
Unfortunately, the twenty-first century has, so far, witnessed the occurrence of climatic variations at shorter time scales (Amoako 2016). In this sense, it is not surprising that adaptation to these climatic variations has become a daunting task for governments , city authorities and residents. In fact, the fifth Assessment Report of IPCC on scientific knowledge of climate change lays bare the threat of climate change to Africaâs recent development gains. Increasing temperatures, rising sea levels and erratic rainfall put strain on climate-sensitive sectors such as hydro-power electricity, agriculture, water and fisheries. More frequent and intense weather events can rupture the infrastructure supporting vital services including energy, transport and health. By threatening food, water and energy access as well as other livelihood and natural systems, climate change could severely undermine efforts to achieve the UNâs Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in urban Africa.
Complicating matters further is the rapid expansion of urban settlements in terms of population growth and spatial extent, often spilling into hazardous zones, placing communities at risk (Cobbinah et al. 2015; Addaney et al. 2018). Scholarly opinion (e.g., Schipper and Burton 2009) indicates that the rate at which natural systems are abused through anthropogenic activities and influences is already alarming and extreme such that âseveral critical thresholds have been crossedâ, a situation that has made these natural systems less resilient to climate variability and change. Within this context, it is reasonable to argue that successful adaptation and response to anthropogenic and naturally induced climate change impacts remain challenges of unfathomable proportions.
1.1 Changing Face of Climate Change Adaptation
Humans have been adapting to changing environments throughout history. Climate change however poses new and severe challenges that threaten human lives and livelihoods (Arias et al. 2016). Over the past two decades, there has been growing recognition of, and attention to climate change in terms of international commitments, conferences, research works and policies to address the increasing risks and looming uncertainty. As a consequence, climate change adaptation has become a household name with its definitional variables expanding over the years (Glick et al. 2009). More recently in its fifth assessment report, the IPCC (2014) explained adaptation as âadjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunitiesâ. Although climate change is a global issue, urban areas are increasingly regarded as having a distinct role in the climate change agenda in the areas of mitigation and adaptation responses. This is because of their vulnerability to shocks and stressors, and the agglomeration of human populations . For example, urban areas exhibit inimitable climate risks such as urban heat island , impervious surfaces exacerbating flood events, coastal development threatened by sea level rise and slum developments (Carter et al. 2007; Garland et al. 2013; Smith and Joffe 2009). Additionally, urban areas house a majority of the worldâs population (UN, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division [UNDESA/PD] 2014) and are global economic hubs, thus exposing many assets to climate change hazards (Satterthwaite 2008). Urban areas are therefore unique centres for exploring climate change adaptation responses. Considering that climate change adaptation decisions frequently require local-specific actions through local level decision-making (Adger et al. 2003), the urban environment remains pivotal in this regard by harnessing the wealth of innovation concentration to strengthen the adaptive capacities of cities .
1.2 Climate Change Adaptation, Urban Growth and Sustainable Development in Africa
As the second most rapidly urbanising continent, there is an increasing need for Africa to prioritise urban management and adaptation policies to engender sustainable climate change action. This presents an opportunity to successfully implement sustainable urban management policies. Goal 11 of the recently adopted Sustainable Development Goals advocates making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable with a more specific focus on decreasing the impact of disasters and reduction in the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities (UN SDGs 2015). Today, urban planners and city authorities are becoming increasingly concerned about sustainable efforts towards creating climate resilient urban environments (World Bank 2014a). Considering the comparatively late onset of urban growth in Africa (Cobbinah et al. 2015; UNDESA/PD 2014), there is a potential for recognising and responding to the climate change related challenges in the urban planning process. By embracing new urban planning and management paradigms and models, local aspirations can be reflected in building adaptable cities that support positive economic, social, and environmental progress. For Africa , delivering the vision of the SDGs particularly in cities is intrinsically linked to taking a holistic view of climate change adaptation . In a variety of contexts, achieving sustainable development in Africa hinges on the capacity to adapt to changing climate and unplanned urbanisation (Cobbinah et al. 2017). According to the IPCC (2018), extreme weather events will become yet more frequent and intense as a result of climate change. Complicating matters further is the nature of Africaâs urbanisation which has been variously described as unplanned, prematured, poverty-driven and rapid (Cobbinah et al. 2015; UN 2018). In this sense, systems which enable African cities to better cope with these extreme events are central to the continentâs sustainable development . Building resilience to the growing impacts of climate change and strengthening capacity to withstand the shocks and stresses of climate disasters are central to achieving the SDGs .
Hulme et al. (2001) point out that âmodel-based predictions of future greenhouse gas-induced climate change for the continent clearly suggest that global warming will continue, and in most scenarios accelerate so the African continent on average could be between 2 and 6 °C warmer in 100 years timeâ. Regarding precipitation, the projections are less certain despite advances made through research in understanding the complex mechanisms responsible for rainfall variability. In Nicholson et al.âs (2001) view, however, almost the entire African continent has been affected by increased aridity with much severity in the Sahel region since the 1980s. A trend towards higher temperatures over the international oceans over the longer term is a probable indication of waning rainfall and greater aridity (see LaFleur et al. 2010). These ongoing and expected changes imply that climatic change generally has serious connotations for Africaâs sustainable development .
Although Africaâs contribution to global climate change is comparatively negligible, it remains the most affected region (Schellnhuber 2013). Other anthropogenic factors such as unplanned urbanisation predispose the continent to the impacts of climate change (Cobbinah et al. 2015). Despite cities acting as main catalysts of economic growth in Africa , their economic attractions and the resultant urbanisation, make them vulnerable to climate change impacts (Moser et a...