Introduction
This book is primarily concerned with the relationship between music, culture and society and how this, in turn, influences modes of communication in music learning and teaching contexts. Understanding how culture and society influence modes of transmission and acquisition for music educators is critical for all students, but particularly so if they are from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. My experiences learning a range of musics in different countries and contexts has taught me to value the multitude of ways in which music knowledge and skills can be shared. As a result, I am more mindful of how I teach music to others so one mode of learning is not privileged over others. Failing to acknowledge and also utilise a range of modes and strategies would ultimately mean some music students are advantaged over others. A balanced approach that values tradition and authenticity as well as embracing innovation, I believe, is ideal and much needed in today’s music classrooms.
There are, of course, a number of similarities across various music learning and teaching environments, however, it is the differences that make music practices rich and diverse. Without acknowledging these differences in institutionalised settings, we are at risk of providing education that privileges some traditions over others and therefore some modes of transmission over others. As stated previously this could potentially disadvantage some students; something I witnessed firsthand when I began my career as a music teacher in Australia some 25 years ago. In my second school environment as a music teacher, many of my students were from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds including Indigenous and Pasifika students. At the time, the Queensland music syllabus disadvantaged many of these students who were for the most part extremely musical yet were unable to read western music notation. Typically, these students were able to perform at a high level often times better than students who had this traditional music literacy. Even though my students were exceptionally musical they could only achieve, at best, an average result in their music studies as the syllabus privileged western art music practices and literacies. This greatly concerned me.
Despite attempts to make the syllabus more inclusive, I have unfortunately continued to observe these dominant and elitist practices, more recently in the university sector; so much so that students who want to become music teachers are being excluded from music university studies due to their training not being in the western classical music tradition. Being aware of a range of transmission modes in music learning and teaching, as well as music knowledges, is critical if music educators are to address diverse students’ learning needs and most importantly enact and embed culturally and socially responsive pedagogies in music teaching contexts such as the classroom.
Defining Key Terms
It is at this point that I think it is important to briefly define key terms use throughout this book: music, culture and society, and music learning and teaching. These will be expanded also in Chaps. 2 and 3.
Firstly, music is about the unique combinations of sounds and silences and how these can be organised in a multitude of ways to create musical works. The extent to which a particular collection of sounds and silences adheres to the cultural and social norms, rules and expectations around music making in a particular context determines whether it can be considered a musical work. This process reflects the importance of cultural and social perspectives in understanding not only music but also how it is taught and learned. Many have also noted how music is inherently social and contributes to cultural and social cohesion and identity (Kelly, 2016; Turino, 2008). Culture and society are inextricably linked. People’s cultural beliefs and behaviours tend to become familiar within a geographical location and/or social networks such as online communities (Spradley, 2016). People define themselves, and are identified, through their culture and consequently, their society’s or group’s shared values and characteristics.
The notion of music learning and teaching, therefore, takes into account how music or organised sound (Blacking, 1973) is, in fact, transmitted by the teacher and acquired by the student within a particular cultural and social context. Of course, throughout this process, both the teacher and student can be learners and teachers, so this relationship is uniquely complex at different points in time.
The ways in which music can be taught and learnt are exponential and these vary according to the context in which such practices occur (see Chap. 3 for more detail). In much of the literature, the term music education is used to refer to how music is taught or learnt in educational settings such as schools (Kelly, 2016). Often identified as ‘formal’ learning, music education involves a set curriculum and has been noted to be mismatched to the ways of learning occurring outside a school’s confines or what is labelled ‘informal’ learning (Green, 2011). I would argue however, that music learning and teaching is cyclic and iterative and that both formal and informal learning takes place at different points in time for different music learners. I also believe that the labels of formal and informal learning do little to illustrate the practices inherent within and outside of schools (see Chap. 3 for more).
The arbitrary distinction between formal and informal perpetuates the hierarchical nature of what is privileged and valued in music education contexts. Formal methods, for example, dominate the scene on what is valued in exclusive, white-centric music teaching (with the emphasis on teaching not learning) and those identified as informal practices are relegated as practices for pleasure or being less important than teaching that occurs in school classrooms (see Chap. 3 for more). Of course, many scholars have attempted to acknowledge and merge these practices, but evidence suggests that classroom music education remains west-centric, linear, product- and outcomes- driven, and teacher controlled (Barnes, 2001; Barton, 2015a; Cain, 2001).
Ethnomusicologists and research in the field of ethnomusicology offer detailed analyses that explore the interaction and unique relationship that exists between music, culture and society. Some of this work has tried to bridge the dichotomous relationship between music learning and music education in institutionalised settings, with many providing empirical evidence as to the benefits such experiences have on music learners or students but also teachers.
The Relationship Between Music, Culture and Society
The relationship between music, culture and society is unsurprisingly well established in the literature. A number of early authors, for example, attempted to build greater understanding of the relationship between music, culture and society from an anthropological point of view (Blacking, 1973; Feld, 1984; Herndon & McLeod, 1982; Lomax, 1976; Merriam, 1964). Further evidence in the literature reveals that this connection is so closely aligned that the three phenomena are virtually interchangeable (Berger, 2014; Hesmondhalgh & Meier, 2017; Small, 1996; Taylor, 2001; Wade, 2008).
Given culture and society are recognised as having a strong influence on music practices it would, therefore, make sense that teachers of music utilise a range of methods to transmit content to their students. Through my experience and observations however, it appears that music teaching particularly within institutionalised settings, remains largely west-centric and teacher-centred (Barton, 2006, 2014). This is concerning, especially given the increasing diversity within many classrooms today. It could, therefore, result in students potentially disengaging in music classes and could also mean that the number of students selecting music to study at school might continue to decline (Barton, 2015a; Jeanneret, 1997; Ng & Bahr, 2000) as their cultural and/or social needs will not be met.
This book aims to illustrate how many music traditions utilise complex combinations of modes through the process of learning and teaching. Music knowledge is both transmitted and acquired multi-modally and often encourages learners to actively participate in music kn...