It is football […] that inspires you to learn, however poorly or inadequately, if not a new language then a new set of (deeply political) terms in a language not your own, to familiarize yourself with a new history. Fútbol is foundational, if not singular, in its ability to move you to take sides in a long-standing political animosity. (Farred 2008, 9)
Grant Farred’s (2008) passionate account of his long-distance love for Liverpool Football Club is one of a number of literary works that explore Association football (soccer), the world game, as a window onto profound transformations in politics , culture and society. The cultural, social, historical, political, economic and organisational bases and impacts of the sport have received considerable academic scrutiny over the past three decades (Giulianotti 1999; Goldblatt 2007; Hughson et al. 2016; Murray 1994). This body of literature foregrounds the complex interplay between football, politics and society, giving the lie to the cliché that football and politics should not, or do not, mix.
1 Outline of the Handbook
The aim of this handbook is to provide a systematic analysis of the links between football and politics . Though football references are commonplace in the political world, as evidenced by the widespread use of sports metaphors in political speeches, we aim to focus on the ways in and through which football is politicised. This handbook presents a detailed picture of the relations between football and politics in a wide number of European, American, African, and Asian states, as well as a comparative assessment of football and politics in a global perspective. Our ambition is to offer an analysis of the relations between football and politics based on 32 case studies covering five continents. All case study chapters follow the same structure: the political dimensions of the origins and historical development of football; the most relevant historical club rivalries; the political aspects of football as a sports spectacle; and contemporary issues associated with the political use of football. The use of a common framework ensures the comparative nature of the book, therefore enabling the investigation of largely studied cases, along with cases that have seldom been addressed with regard to the examined themes. These cases have been selected based on the premise that football is an important national, economic, political and social issue in the studied country. These countries were also chosen because of the popularity of the game of football among (large segments of) the population.
The first section of each chapter focuses on the political origins of football. It addresses how each country introduced a historically English game to the specificities of the local culture . How did the local cultures adapt or resist this global phenomenon? How did the introduction of football affect the construction of a relationship towards England, and more broadly, towards the Western World? These questions are closely linked to the role football played in the construction of the nation (Hobsbawm 2001, 143), and the way local political powers used the rapidly growing popularity of the game of football as a unifying tool. Furthermore, we also pose the question of the dual use of football as a means of both reinforcing political authorities’ international image and reputation and enhancing their internal legitimacy . Finally, football often acts as a catalyst for socio-political tensions and conflicts in society. This effect is linked to the strong symbolic and identity charge bestowed on sports competition , constituting an ideal breeding ground for the construction and reinforcement of national identities , sporting issues being superimposed on ethnic tensions.
The second section of each chapter examines historical and contemporary club rivalries. What sets football apart from other forms of popular culture is the centrality of opposition and rivalry , which have a strong symbolic and affective charge (Benkwitz and Molnar 2012). How does the game provide a “ready background for the expression of deeper social and cultural antagonisms” (Armstrong and Giulianotti 2001, 1)? Though this particular issue has been addressed rather thoroughly in the literature, the aim of this section is to add to this knowledge base by providing a systematic overview of the various forms and configurations of rivalry.
The third section of each chapter addresses football as a sports spectacle. This includes relatively general inquiries such as the perception and significance of football within a given society, but also more specific issues concerning football supporters and their mobilisation inside and outside of the stadium, including violence and (anti-)racism . Most studies essentially focus on the most radicalised and mediatised forms of football fandom in Western Europe. Part of the literature focuses on the way football fandom can stimulate the emergence of radical political tendencies (right or left) (Testa 2009). This is primarily explained by football supporters’ attraction to the claims, organisational models or methods of action of certain extremist groups. On the other hand, supporter groups can constitute a major wager for radical currents or political parties that see the stadium as an arena allowing them to acquire the visibility they struggle to achieve in the public debate. They can use and politicise these supporter circles by infiltrating them (Hourcade 2000). However, authors disagree on the issue of the true permeability of supporters in relation to radical political ideas. While some studies conclude that there is a genuine support and engagement among supporters in relation to political ideologies (Balestri et al. 2002), others show that supporters’ political expressions aim particularly at provoking, disqualifying the opponent, distinguishing themselves from other groups and constructing identity (Bromberger 2002; Spaaij and Viñas 2005, 2013).
A more recent and promising field of research examines how football fandom can lead to the mobilisation of its members and their participation in large-scale events, hence hinting at the existence of a politicisation process among its members. Here, authors explore the internal resources used by football supporter groups within the scope of their activities, which can in turn, lead to the development of different forms of collective action (Testa 2009; Lestrelin 2012). This approach is embedded in the broader theory of resource mobilisation that describes supporter groups as sites of political socialisation , consequently enabling them to extend their participation beyond the sporting arena and into society as a whole. Accordingly, authors have shown that football supporters are able to mobilise for general issues linked to the commercialisation of their football clubs, the protection of civil liberties (Lestrelin and Basson 2014) or against police brutality (Beshir 2011).
Finally, we allowed each author space to examine a specific political issue relevant to their case study, providing the basis for a comparison of cases following an inductive approach. This fourth section thus examines contemporary issues linked to each case specifically, relating to issues such as religion, gender , corruption , geopolitical interests, social integration or economic dimensions. In the next section, we identify the main cross-cutting themes and patterns from these case studies.
2 Assessing the Politicisation of Football
Research on football and politics consistently shows the dynamic ways in which football is implicated in the p...