Overview
This chapter will look at self-access learning and advising, which are two interconnected areas of innovation taking place in language education in Japan. The focus is on language learning beyond the classroom, which does not receive enough attention in the literature (Reinders & Benson, 2017). I begin with a brief summary of some key points related to learner autonomy and learning beyond the classroom in order to situate the paper in the current literature. I then give a general overview of self-access and advising before discussing how and why they are being introduced in Japan. I make a case that self-access and advising are considered examples of innovative practice in Japan. I will show how institutions are approaching self-access and how colleagues are innovating or experiencing challenges in seven key areas. I include a ālessons learnedā section after each of these descriptions of innovative practice in order to indicate where future directions for the field lie.
Learner Autonomy
As a starting point, I take the view that in order for a language learner to become a successful, lifelong language learner, he or she will need to be autonomous (Benson, 2011; Holec, 1981; Little, 1991). Broadly speaking, learner autonomy is the capacity to take charge of oneās own learning (Little, 1991). Autonomous learners have a high degree of awareness about their learning and also have the opportunities and willingness to exercise control over how they learn. In addition, they cooperate with others as part of a social process (Dam, Eriksson, Little, Miliander, & Trebbi, 1990). The development of autonomy will involve individualizing the learning process, including managing the content, pace, strategies and resources, and this requires being able to engage in ongoing reflection and self-evaluation. Training and opportunities for learners to exercise control over their learning can be incorporated into language classroom instruction. However, in order to support individual learners appropriately, it is necessary to provide opportunities and support for learning outside the classroom as well.
Definitions and Theoretical Underpinnings of Self-Access
Recent discussions about where language learning might best take place have adopted a holistic view, which considers multiple environments. We might view self-access facilities,1 classrooms, other outside-class locations, and online locations as among many that students might use for language learning and the development of their autonomy (Benson, 2017). Self-access facilities are āperson-centred social learning environments that actively promote language learner autonomy both within and outside the spaceā (Mynard, 2016b). This and similar definitions (e.g., Gardner, 2011; Reinders, 2012) highlight the importance of factors such as support for language learning: the provision for resources and facilities ideal for different kinds of language learning and opportunities for language skills development through target language use. In practice, self-access facilities are normally physical spaces that become centers for autonomous learning to develop.
Drawing on social constructivist learning theories, we can see how rich and stimulating social environments such as self-access facilities help people to make sense of new information by allowing opportunities for the negotiation of meaning in order to incorporate it into their existing schemata (Adelman Reyes & Vallone, 2008; Von Glasersfeld, 1989). Knowledge construction is facilitated by dialogue with others (Lantolf, 2000; Vygotsky, 1987) and is enacted in self-access through one-to-one advising sessions and interactions with peers, teachers and other people.
Self-Access: Origins and Shifts
Since the first documented self-access center at the University of Lorraine in Nancy, France in 1969 (Holec, 2000), there have been several developments that have influenced the field. Firstly, our understanding of language learning has deepened and this has had an impact on the ways in which SACs operate. Secondly, people are learning languages for different reasons and in different ways. Thirdly, technological advances have had a huge impact in at least three ways: (1) we now have access to resources that were typically only previously available in a library or self-access facility; (2) the ways in which people communicate and how they are connected influences language learning; and (3) the expectations people have for language learning normally include technology. As a result of these changes, SACs have been forced to re-evaluate their purpose with the provision of resources becoming less relevant, and the social affordances becoming the driving force behind innovative self-access (Allhouse, 2014, 2015; Murray & Fujishima, 2013, 2016; Murray, Fujishima, & Uzuka, 2014; Mynard, 2016a, 2016b; Thornton, 2016). As we will see in this chapter, much of this innovation has occurred in Japan.
Advising in Language Learning (ALL)
Advising in language learning (ALL) is the intentional use of one-to-one dialogue to promote deeper thought with the aim of promoting language learner autonomy (Carson & Mynard, 2012; Kato & Mynard, 2015). In practice, ALL normally takes place outside the classroom, is optional, and focuses on learning processes (rather than specifics about language, such as grammar). A self-access facility is an ideal place for advising to take place due to the proximity of resources and access to other language users. ALL dialogue helps learners think deeply and reflect on their learning process and ultimately direct their own learning (Carson & Mynard, 2012; Kato & Mynard, 2015).
The starting point for any advising session should be the needs of the individual learner, taking into account their degree of metacognitive awareness, their previous experiences of learning languages, their interests, preferences, motivations, goals, identities, and so on. Although good language teachers may attempt to cater for individual preferences in language classrooms, it is often harder to do so inside the classroom due to class size and the priority given to covering a language syllabus. In addition, a teacher and/or advisor is often conflicted about how to balance the role. It is often difficult to ignore the requirements of a curriculum when working with learners, especially if their personal goals do not align with the goals of the curriculum.
The role of a learning advisor in a self-access facility normally incorporates the following:
- Advising learners on a one-to-one basis with a focus on the development of autonomy.
- Paying attention to the cognitive, metacognitive, and affective aspects of learning.
- Giving feedback (oral and/or in writing) on self-directed work.
- Facilitating opportunities for community-based learning and language practice.
- Assisting in the provision of appropriate resources suitable for self-directed language learners.
A learning advisor also needs to engage in action research and ongoing professional development.
Why Are Advising and Self-Access Considered to Be Innovations in Japan?
Although elsewhere in the world, notably in Mexico, the UK, France, Thailand, New Zealand and Hong Kong, self-access and advising have had a place in language education for decades, why are they still considered to be innovations in Japan? A partial answer to this is that typically there has been very little focus given to outside-class support for language learning in Japanese educational institutions. In general, Japanese university students spend less ...