This book analyses the current state of maritime security in East and West Africa. Governments in both regions have more or less ignored the maritime environment for decades. 1 In recent years, however, three distinct developments have led to an increased interest in maritime issues: piracy off the Somali coastline, the growing importance of offshore oil and gas production, and an increasing interest in the sustainable exploitation of fish stocks along the coastline. These aspects were the main drivers behind the African Unionâs first-ever maritime summit which was held in the Togolese capital LomĂ© in October 2016. 2
Despite an increasing amount of research about topics related to the maritime environment in general and maritime security in particular, academics and practitioners alike tend to concentrate on some selected subjects. In many cases, there may be good reasons for such a narrow focus. Unfortunately, more comprehensive observations of links between different actors and developments in the maritime environment as well as connections with land-based issues are still extremely rare.
The âbigger pictureâ is important for decisions in a broad range of areas. Increasing offshore oil production, for example, can generate revenues for exporting countries, 3 yet challenges with financial transparency have to be addressed at the same time. 4 Some of the money can then be used to improve naval capabilities and to provide security around oil fields while additional patrol boats may also be used to identify and detain illegal fishing vessels. Such efforts would directly benefit small-scale fishermen along the coastline who are suffering from the impact of foreign fishing fleets. 5 At the same time, offshore installations can affect traditional fishing grounds. Local fishermen, afraid to lose their livelihoods, may then employ illegal methods themselves or supplement their income through smuggling and other illegal activities at sea. 6
Even such a short description illustrates the complex interplay of various actors at sea. Decisions in one area often lead to unexpected developments in another. The same area of the sea can be used for different purposes, ranging from fishing and coastal tourism to merchant shipping and offshore oil production. Some of these purposes, such as small-scale fishing and coastal tourism, may complement each other, and others are directly linked with each other. Other activities, however, are mutually exclusive, for example fishing and offshore oil production. 7 Such issues may not be unique to the maritime environment, yet it certainly offers a worthwhile area for academic research.
On the national level, links between government agencies, local communities and the private sectorâcomprising local and international companiesâhave to be analysed. Local fishermen often know more about their immediate environment than naval or coastguard officers, even though their knowledge is rarely mentioned in discussions about maritime security. 8 Partnerships between the private and the public sector are necessary to fund large-scale infrastructure projects such as ports or offshore energy production, yet companies have to rely on the government to provide security. 9 Many other examples can be identified, some of which are explored in detail throughout this book.
Moreover, developments at sea not only have direct implications on land in specific countries, but also across a wider area, creating the need for cooperation on topics ranging from environmental regulations to joint naval patrols. Oil and gas fields might straddle maritime boundaries, for example between Nigeria and SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe 10 or between Senegal and Mauritania. 11 Migratory fish stocks are vulnerable to exploitation in one jurisdiction, impacting coastal communities in neighbouring countries. 12 Significant numbers of attacks against merchant ships can have a knock-on effect on ports throughout a region such as West Africa, making maritime trade more expensive. 13
At the same time, maritime securityâjust as security in generalâis a public good, leading to very basic questions. Who pays for maritime security and who benefits most from improvements? Compared with security on land, governments may feel less compelled to invest because a lack of maritime security does not have a direct impact on domestic populations. Furthermore, the problem of free-riding is not a new phenomenon, highlighted by a report on Chinese piracy, published in February 1867 in The London and China Telegraph:
Besides we are not the only Power with large interests at stake. French, Americans, and Germans carry on an extensive trade [âŠ] Why should we then incur singly the expense of suppressing piracy if each provided a couple of gunboats the force would suffice for the safety of foreign shipping which is all that devolves upon [âŠ] why should the English tax payer alone bear the expense? 14
Maritime developments in general and maritime security in particular have not been the topic of much academic research in the past, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. There is a sizeable gap in the academic literature; attention of scholars and practitioners has only increased in the past decade. Most of that attention can be attributed to piracy and armed robbery at sea off Somalia and in the Gulf of Guinea. Such incidents, however, should only be a small part of an overarching discussion about maritime security. Nevertheless, both regions offer interesting case studies. Efforts to improve maritime security differ, yet there are also similarities and lessons that have been learned and can now be applied in other parts of the world.
1.1 Structure of the Book
Throughout the next five chapters, this book provides a comprehensive look at different aspects which are closely related to maritime security in East and West Africa. Chapter 2 sets the scene and explains that there is currently no generally accepted definition of maritime security. It is often seen as part of traditional discussions about naval power, yet such discussions are completely irrelevant for most countries around the world, including coastal states in sub-Saharan Africa.
The following chapters then highlight why maritime security should be analysed in an economic rather than a security context. First and foremost, a secure environment at sea is a key aspect of the âblue economyâ. The economic potential of any countryâs maritime domain 15 can only be fully exploited when laws and regulations are in place and enforced by navies, coastguards or other agencies with a maritime remit.
Notable examples for the blue economyâs potential to stimulate growth and economic development throughout Africa include offshore oil and gas production, maritime trade and fishing. These aspects are analysed for East and West Africa in Chapters 3 and 4, highlighting that improved security at sea can have direct benefits for government budget...