While India has emerged as a global hub in the past few decades, womenâs empowerment and emancipation are still facing many barriers (Haq, 2013; Kaushik, Sharma, & Kaushik, 2014). Indian women who emerge as leaders in many domains do so after overcoming countless barriers posed by a patriarchal society. In this opening chapter, we provide an overview of how India âs patriarchal society has portrayed women through the lens of religion and mythology and the nuances associated with those perceptions. We hope that, through this overview, you will understand better the contextual conditions that are unique to India and how they continue to shape the challenges experienced by women leaders in India . In the backdrop of this contextual understanding, we outline the 15 chapters in this book presented in four parts: barriers and challenges, signs of hope, sector perspectives, and international perspectives.
Women Indian Deities and Womenâs Leadership
The ancient religion of India is the sanatan dharma or Hinduism (Denton, 2012). Islam and Christianity came to India much later. Hence, most references to women in ancient India are from Hindu mythology and epics. Hinduism is rich in idol worship with many goddesses and demi-goddesses (who have some but not all of the powers of goddesses). They are still worshipped with reverence by men and women alike in different parts of India . A few include Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity; Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts; Santoshi Ma, the goddess of material or spiritual satisfaction; and Ma Manasa, the goddess of snakes, as a symbol of nature. The goddesses are all depicted as good looking but range in their degree of docility and demureness. Goddesses Durga and Kali are known for their strength and valor. They are the warrior goddesses and are known to have defeated evil spirits or demons when everyone else failed to do so. In terms of marital status, most are consorts of a god. While goddess Lakshmi is depicted as sitting at the feet of Lord Vishnu, her husband, Goddess Kali is seen to be standing on Lord Shiva, her husband, in a spate of rage. Her other form, Goddess Durga or Parvati, is seen beside Lord Shiva as equals. There is also the concept of Ardhanarishvara, a composite androgynous form of the Hindu god, Shiva, and his consort, Parvati (also known as Devi, Shakti, and Uma in this icon), depicted as half male and half female, split down the middle (Goldberg, 2002).
This brief description implies that Hinduism, in its original form, does not denigrate women. In fact, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine among major world religions, from ancient times to the present (Bryant, 2007). The powerful women deities can serve as enabling role models for women contesting the notions of women subordination and obedience (Rajan, 1998). But, a closer look is needed to understand the influence of women goddesses in Indian society. Does ideological promotion of women as divine entities through worship of female deities contribute to ordinary womenâs quest for gender equality and, hence, aspiration for leadership positions in India ?
While there is no doubt that female goddesses legitimize womenâs ability to possess and exhibit power and may counteract banalization of womenâs leadership to some extent, it also implies that women can be leaders only if they are elevated to the status of divinity. There is evidence of a comparison of women political leaders in India , such as Indira Gandhi (late ex-Prime Minister of India ) and Jayalalitha (late ex-Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, a state in South India ), to powerful goddesses, such as Durga and Kali (Lama, 2001). This further underscores the point that women leaders in India need to be deemed super-human in order to escape typical criticisms (e.g., character assassination and poor judgment as a leader) that ordinary women face. This suggests that, although a few unconventional women may find legitimacy for their non-domestic leadership roles by referring to female deities in Indian society, the average Indian women do not necessarily benefit from the practice of goddess worship. The patriarchal society feels that women can be allowed to serve beyond their expected domestic roles if and only if they can be super humans and handle both responsibilities without the slightest flaw. To be able to attain the freedom of working outside the home, women have to be better than others to be able to earn respect. Furthermore, the practice of worshipping women as divine beings preserves the patriarchal system as then women need to be extra-cautious in protecting their honor in society because their honor as divine beings is considered sacred, which can be harmed if they are granted the freedom that is typical to ordinary humans (Rajan, 1998). This is evident in the Hindu hegemonic discourse noted in the following two quotes from Manusmriti, a highly revered holy text of Hinduism:
In the home where women are worshipped, there the Gods shower blessings. In the home where women are not worshipped, even virtuous deeds go unrewarded. (Laws of Manu III 56; BĂŒhler, 1886)
Be a girl, be a young woman, or even be an aged one, nothing must be done independently by a woman, even in her own house. In childhood, a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead, to her sons; a woman must never be independent. (Laws of Manu, V, 147â148; BĂŒhler, 1886)
While these two quotes might appear to contradict each other (as one says that women are to be worshipped and the other states that women should never be allowed independence), a careful reading will show that the recognition of womenâs divine power through worship is justification for the patriarchal societyâs inclination to control womenâs independence (Erndl, 2000). The honor associated with the image of women as divine beings necessitates the additional sanctions on womenâs behavior in society as, otherwise, that honor might be lost. And so, the answer to the question of whether the cultural practice of worshipping female deities prevalent in Indian society is empowering to women needs to be a cautious âyesâ (Erndl, 2000; Rajan, 1998), as women, aspiring for leadership roles, in a way, have to prove their divinity to be successful and respected in society.
Women in Indian Epics and Women Leadership
In two famous Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, we see quite diverse and conflicting views of the position of women, ranging from independence of thoughts and actions to limiting roles as an obedient daughter, housewife, and mother. For instance, Panchakanya is a group of five iconic heroines of Hindu epics, extolled in a hymn and whose names are believed to dispel sin when recited (Bhattacharya, 2004); Ahalya, Draupadi, Kunti, Tara, and Mandodari. Sometimes, Sita is considered as a Panchakanya, in the place of Kunti. Ahalya, Tara, Mandodari, and Sita are from the epic Ramayana; while as Draupadi and Kunti are from the Mahabharata.
Sita, the wife of King Rama of Ayodhya, is worshipped as an epitome of fidelity and sacrifice. She accompanied her husband to the forest when he was exiled for 14 years by his step-mother. During their stay, Sita was abducted by Ravana, the King of Lanka (present Sri Lanka). Although Ravana developed a liking for Sita, she never allowed him to come near. A big battle was fought between Rama and Ravana, in which the former won, and Sita was rescued. Sitaâs chastity, however, was questioned multiple times by her husband, Rama, and his kingdom. Sita obeyed her husband when he asked her to prove her chastity by walking through fire (agnipariksha), the idea being that, if Sita had been faithful to her husband, she would be unscathed and that would be her proof of purity. Sitaâs willingness to enter a burning pyre is regarded as the iconic example of devotion to a husband, and many Indian women are encouraged to model such unquestioning dedication in their married lives. However, a careful analysis of Sitaâs actions shows that there is more to her character than submission to her husband. When her chastity was questioned, she relented, but her disappointment was reflected in her decision to leave her husband after their sons had grown up as strong warriors. As per the epic legend, Sita decided to return to mother earth (i.e., the earth splits open and Sita disappears into the opening, symbolizing the embracing of Sita by mother earth), instead of a life as a queen with Rama. In this final act, Sita denounces the prestige and luxury of a royal life by exercising her willpower to leave her husband (Pattanaik, 2010).
Mahabharata is a very rich epic and comprises 100,000 couplets. It also has a myriad of characters, some being prominent women. Draupadi is the wife of five brothers (Pandavas). When Draupadi was disrespected by the Kauravas (Pandavasâ 100 cousins) who disrobed her in public, she vowed to have her vengeance by having all of them killed by the Pandavas, her husbands. There was also enmity among the cousins regarding ownership of the kingdoms of Hastinapur and Indraprastha, which thus ensued the battle of Mahabharata in which all of the Kauravas were killed. Draupadi felt peace of mind after washing her hair with the blood of the Kauravas. Kunti was Draupadiâs mother-in-law (mother of the Pandavas) who was widowed at a young age. She raised her five sons, and the epic shows her as a very powerful woman who advised her sons and fought for their rights as heirs of Hastinapur. Kunti also had a son before her marriage, whom she had abandoned due to societal pressure, but who later plays a prominent role in the story of Mahabharata against the Pandavas.
While the epics are fictitious, they do carry vignettes of the society and represent the status of women and challenges posed to their leadership. The Mahabharata, for example, states:
The Anushasana Parva compares the value of a daughter to a son, as follows:No man, even in anger, should ever do anything that is disagreeable to his wife; for happiness, joy, virtue and everything depend on the wife. Wife is the sacred soil in which the husband is born again, even the Rishis cannot create men without women.â Adi Parva, Mahabharata Book, 1.74.50â51
While these may be true in theory, in reality, we often see these values being violated in the epics, thereby reflecting reality in Indian society. For instance, Draupadiâs eldest husband, Yudhistira (who is also considered the epitome of dharma or virtuousness) pawns her in a game of dice, thus subjecting her to extreme humility at the hands of his cousins, the Kauravas. A court...The daughter, O king, has been ordained in the scriptures to be equal to the son.â Bhishma, Anushasana Parva, Mahabharata, 13.47.26