Empire and Gunpowder

Military Industrialisation and Ascendancy of the East India Company in India, 1757–1856

Moumita Chowdhury

• Publisher: Routledge India
• Year: 2022
• ISBN:
  9781000603972
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Indian & South Asian History
• Index: History

This book focuses on the relation between technology, warfare and state in South Asia in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. It explores how gunpowder and artillery played a pivotal role in the military ascendancy of the East India Company in India.

The monograph argues that the contemporary Indian military landscape was extremely dynamic, with contemporary indigenous polities (Mysore, the Maratha Confederacy and the Khalsa Kingdom) attempting to transform their military systems by modelling their armies on European lines. It shows how the Company established an edge through an efficient bureaucracy and a standardised manufacturing system, while the Indian powers primarily focused on continuous innovation and failed to introduce standardisation of production.

Drawing on archival records from India and the UK, this volume makes a significant intervention in our understanding of the rise of the British Empire in South Asia. It will be of great interest to scholars and researchers of history, especially military history, military and strategic studies and South Asian studies.

1 Weapons, Armies, Warfare and Polities in Pre-British India

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297994-2

Introduction

Colonial commentators paint an extremely dismal picture of Indian warfare before the coming of the British. These critics believed that the military system in pre-British India was essentially an armed rabble. According to them, the Indian armies did not possess an effective command structure. It was also technologically stagnant and the troops were poorly trained. They had an equally low opinion about Indian cavalry. According to them, the cavalry was more suitable for processions, rather than the exertions of the battlefield. In their opinion, these inadequacies hampered the general performance of the army.¹ However, nothing could be farther from the truth. Historically, the subcontinent has witnessed the rise of numerous thriving military systems which fostered invention and innovation.² India’s geographical location made it a conduit to contemporary technological and organisational transformations. The Aryans, for instance, introduced three new elements to Indian military culture: chariots, iron weapons and horses. Together, these components gave rise to interstate warfare in India. The Aryan innovations were supplemented by indigenous developments. For instance, the Magadhan rulers introduced two technological contraptions which gave them an edge over the enemy, namely the mahasilakantika and the rathamusala. The mahasilakantika was a huge catapult that was used for throwing large stones. The rathamusala was a chariot fitted with knives which caused severe damage when driven through massed infantry.³ The Indian powers learnt from both defeat and victory. They continuously upgraded their military organisation to integrate contemporary innovations. The Gupta Age witnessed the introduction of new technology, the composite bow. The Inner Asian nomadic warriors were a bane to the stability of the agrarian polities from ancient times until the nineteenth century. To cope with this menace, the Gupta rulers had to reinvent their weapon system. Under Chandragupta Vikramaditya, the Gupta army gradually became cavalry-centric. Along with adopting the composite bow, the Guptas adopted a steppe nomadic uniform comprising trousers, belts and boots. Moreover, they introduced certain improvements which allowed them to emerge victorious against the mounted hordes. The Guptas developed two kinds of heavy cavalry: heavy cavalry armed with composite bows and heavy cavalry carrying swords. These two branches worked in tandem: while the archers engaged the enemy through long-distant shooting, the sword-bearing cavalry charged the enemy and initiated close quarter combat.⁴ Indian powers also created complex military structures and at times initiated Military Revolutions.⁵ This chapter analyses the development of warfare in India, from a technological perspective. It examines how the Indian powers responded to gunpowder and gunpowder weapons. The chapter additionally explores the symbiotic relationship between technological adaptation, the character of an army and the nature of warfare. Further, the chapter investigates how these elements ultimately influenced the character of the state. Finally, it attempts to decipher, why the forward movement of military integration and technological innovation came to halt under the Mughal Empire and its successor states.

Gunpowder Technology and Warfare in India

Babur is often credited for introducing gunpowder weapons in India. However, gunpowder was known to Indians long before Babur’s invasion. Probably, gunpowder was first introduced in northern India during the Mongol invasions of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. In southern India, gunpowder weapons were introduced by the Portuguese and Ottoman sailors.⁶ According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, one of the first pyrotechnic devices used in India was the rocket. It was extensively used by the Delhi Sultanate, the Bahmani Kingdom and the Vijaynagar Empire. By the fifteenth century, firearms in the form of simple cannon had appeared in India.⁷ However, Babur’s invasion was significant for two reasons. Firstly, it firmly established the military potential of gunpowder weapons on the battlefield. It introduced a new form of hybrid war machine in India; one that combined gunpowder weapons and musketeers with wagon laagers and elite mounted archers. Andrew de la Garza rightly points out that the addition of gunpowder weapons to Babur’s arsenal was a significant development.⁸

Babur’s artillery contained both field pieces and siege artillery. According to Khan, Babur’s artillery comprised three different kinds of cannon—zarb-zan, firingi and kazan.⁹ Zarb-zans and firingis were light pieces, which seem to have been used as field artillery, while the kazans were heavier pieces and better suited for sieges. Both the zarb-zan and the firingi were made of bronze. The zarb-zans were probably a form of swivel gun, which were mounted on two-wheel carriages and drawn by four pairs of bullocks. They could fire stone shot weighing up to 500 mithkals (approximately 1.263 kg). The firingis seem to have been small breech-loading cannon. As the name suggests, it was probably modelled on the European light naval gun.¹⁰ The kazans were heavy mortars made of brass or bronze, with a range of 1,600 paces or 1 kilometre. These cannon were mounted on four-wheeled carriages. To mount the kazans, wooden planks were used on both sides to reinforce the guns on the carriages. However, these carriages did not possess elevation screws. Hence, the trajectory of these cannon could not be changed. These guns were usually rested on raised ground and fired from fixed positions.¹¹

Babur’s army also included musketeers, who were armed with tufangs or matchlock muskets. These handguns seem to have been modelled on the ones used by the Ottoman Empire. The earliest version of the musket was probably made of brass. By 1554–6, matchlock muskets with wrought-iron barrels had become common in the subcontinent. These muskets could be fired from a kneeling position and the musketeers usually carried forked sticks for resting the handguns. Babur’s musketeers proved to be effective in repeated encounters. For instance, the defendants at the fort of Bajaur (1519) had not witnessed musket fire earlier and ridiculed Babur’s musketeers. However, the Bajauris’ laughter quickly turned to despair, when Babur’s muskets took down almost ten Bajauris.¹²

The Mughal artillery establishment was further expanded by Akbar. During his reign, the artillery establishment was upgraded in two ways. Not only was the existing artillery improved to increase its precision, durability and performance, but many new specialised models were also manufactured to meet different needs. Akbar’s administration focused on developing both heavy and light artillery. From his time, Mughal artillery came to be divided into three categories, based on the weight of the shot fired. The first category included heavy cannon—capable of firing shot weighing 12 mans (approximately 663 lbs.) or more. According to Abu’l Fazl, the Mughal army deployed cannon capable of firing shot weighing 60 mans (approximately 3,097 lbs.) at Ranthambor (1570). The second category comprised light cannon made of bronze or wrought iron. Being much lighter than the mortars, these pieces were pulled by horses. Francis Bernier referred to such cannon as the ‘artillery of the stirrup’. According to him, these cannon were mounted on carriages and drawn by two horses. Andrew de la Garza used the term ‘true field artillery’ to describe these pieces. Initially, these guns were made of wrought-iron staves and hoops, which were reinforced by layers of copper or brass sheeting. Over time, such crude design gave way to laminated copper-iron cannon. The third category included smaller cannon mounted on swivels. Initially, these guns were carried on elephants and called gajnals. Later, these were mounted on camels and referred to as shaturnals. According to Khan, these guns were made of both brass and wrought iron. The barrel was fitted to a wooden stock or seat with circular ribs. The breech end of the cannon carried a priming pan and an iron socket was attached to the barrel. Swivel gun were also mounted on bastions of forts to protect against the approaching enemy. When used in this manner, the shaturnal was called a jezial.¹³

The production of muskets also developed during Akbar’s time. Earlier, musket barrels were made by flattening pieces of iron using hammer and anvil. These pieces were then joined at the edges. However, this mechanism made the muskets prone to accidents. Akbar applied a new method to manufacturing muskets where iron pieces were first flattened and then twisted obliquely. This caused the metal to roll over and form folds. These folds were then joined one over the other and gradually heated in the fire. Three or four such cylindrical rods were utilised to manufacture one barrel. This method produced stronger musket barrels, which were capable of firing a much larger gunpowder charge than before. These muskets could fire gunpowder worth one-third of the barrel length, without bursting.¹⁴ According to Jos Gommans, the Mughal muskets could fire larger powder charges because they had thick barrels and small bores. This provided greater range and precision to Mughal muskets. Generally, these muskets had long barrels (approximately 1.80 m) which increased their accuracy.¹⁵ In terms of quality, the Mughal matchlocks rivalled the ones made in contemporary Europe. In Gommans’ opinion, the Mughal musket was better than its European contemporary in terms of accuracy and durability. Jean Baptiste Tavernier commented that the barrels of Indian muskets were stronger than those in Europe since Indian iron was better in quality. Bernier also claimed that Indian artisans manufactured excellent muskets.¹⁶

Different types of gun carriages also formed a part of the Mughal artillery establishment. According to Bernier, the small gun carriages were well made and beautifully painted. Khan argues that it is likely that these carriages were copied from European carriages. In contrast, the gun carriages used for transporting heavy mortars were unwieldy and primitive. They primarily comprised a large base, which was raised six feet above the ground. Upon these carriages, pivots were attached to hold the mortars. These carriages were drawn by 40 or 50 yoked oxen. According to William Irvine, in certain cases, carriages were not used for carrying heavy guns. Rather, the un-mounted mortars were attached to large beasts (possibly elephants) and dragged across the country.¹⁷ Akbar also had a keen interest in rockets. He sent 550 cannon and 16,000 rockets to Munim Khan to protect Mughal interests in Jaunpur. Akbar’s army used different varieties of rockets, such as Chandra-bans and Kahak-bans Mazandarani. These rockets were manufactured by filling a foot-long hollow iron rod with gunpowder and had range of more than 1,000 yards. There were many reasons why Akbar favoured the use of rockets in warfare. Firstly, rockets were quite useful as anti-personnel weapon, particularly against enemy cavalry and elephants. Moreover, rockets weighed less and hence could be carried in large numbers. One camel could easily carry more than 20 rockets.¹⁸

Akbar’s reign was truly significant for the development of military industrialisation. Not only did he innovate the existing establishment but also introduced several unique inventions. According to Abu’l Fazl, Akbar invented a gun that could be taken apart during marches and then reassembled when required. He also invented a form of multi-barrelled gun. This cannon had 17 barrels, which were rigged to a fire from a single fuse. Along with these, he created cattle-driven machine which could clean 16 muskets at once.¹⁹ His zeal of innovation and invention inspired the indigenous population towards developing new weapons. For example, an ascetic-warrior community called the Nagas invented a new kind of rocket that had knives attached to its cylinder.²⁰ In fact, the Mughals can be credited with transforming the Indian military culture. Prior to Babur, gunpowder weapons were a novelty in Indian warfare. But after Babur proved the might of cannon, his enemies eagerly adopted this technology. Sher Shah Suri (who would later go on to defeat Humayun) enlisted in Babur’s service to learn the methods of Mughal warfare. At Kanauj (1540), he successfully used this knowledge to launch a combined-arms attack involving cavalry and artillery. After his victory at Kanauj, Sher Shah continued to expand his artillery establishment.²¹

Babur employed the services of Khwaja Ahmad Rumi to manufacture cannon.²² His artillery included heavy mortars, hand grenades, light artillery and muskets. However, Sher Shah’s light brass cannon were different from the Mughal ones. They had narrow and long cylindrical barrels, prominent muzzles and long handles behind the breech...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of maps
• Acknowledgements
• List of abbreviations
• Glossary
• Introduction
• 1 Weapons, Armies, Warfare and Polities in Pre-British India
• 2 The Character of the East India Company’s Army
• 3 Production of Gunpowder in India, 1757–1856
• 4 Production of Cannon in India, 1757–1856
• 5 Production of Gun Carriages in India, 1757–1856
• 6 Artillery and the Military-Fiscal State in India, 1757–1856
• 7 Changing Dynamics of Warfare in India, 1757–1856
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Index