CliffsNotes on The Bible, Revised Edition

Cliff Notes

• Publisher: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
• ISBN:
  9780544179912
• Edition: 0
• Topic: Study Aids
• Subtopic: Study Guides

The Historical Writings: Joshua, Judges, and 1 and 2 Samuel

Summary

Joshua

 

Consisting of twenty-four chapters, approximately the first half of the Book of Joshua is an extension of the history recorded in Deuteronomy; the remainder appears to have been added by authors of the Late Priestly History. The story of the conquest of Canaan is told briefly and in a manner that indicates that it was accomplished easily and within a relatively short period of time. The crossing of the Jordan River is attended by Yahweh’s miraculous intervention, reminiscent of the crossing of the Red Sea that followed the Exodus from Egypt. In commemoration of the Jordan River crossing, twelve stones are taken from the river bed and erected as a monument. The first city to be attacked is Jericho, where the walls tumble down at the moment when trumpet blasts are heard. Because Achan steals a wedge of gold and a fine Babylonian garment, the Hebrews fail to capture the city of Ai. Not until punishment is meted out for Achan’s sin does the city fall into the Hebrews’ hands.

Joshua, in accordance with the instruction that he receives, gathers representatives of all the people in one place and delivers to them the statutes and ordinances given by Moses. In a battle with the Gibeonites, Joshua commands the sun and moon to stand still, with the result that the day is lengthened, thus enabling Joshua’s forces to achieve a remarkable victory over their enemies. The latter chapters of the book describe the division of the land among the various tribes. The authors of this book were evidently interested in personalities. They had a very high regard for Joshua, ranking him as second only to Moses. The farewell address that this hero delivers before all Israel praises Yahweh for the victories that he has given and counsels the people to remain faithful to the god who has already done so much in their behalf.

 

Judges

 

Really a continuation of the history in Joshua, the Book of Judges’ central theme is the settlement in the land of Canaan, a period that preceded the establishment of the monarchy. Although the leaders of the people were known as judges, their chief function was not that of deciding cases of law but rather providing political and military leadership in times of crises. These crises occurred one after another in rapid succession, indicating quite clearly that after the death of Joshua, the situation that the Israelites faced was chaotic. Whenever conditions became intolerable, a leader would arise and deliver his people from the hands of the enemy. But the victory would never bring about anything more than temporary relief. Within a short time, a new crisis would develop and the cycle of events would be repeated.

The first judge, or deliverer, was Othniel, who brought victory to the Israelites after they suffered eight years of oppression by the king of Mesopotamia. Then came Ehud, who delivered his people from the Moabites. Deborah, both a judge and a prophet, sent out a call to the various tribes to unite in a battle against the Canaanites. Responding to her call, the Israelites defeated the armies of Sisera at a battle at Megiddo. Gideon was another judge who delivered the people of Israel, this time from the Midianites. The story of Gideon is related at considerable length, for he is regarded as one of the better judges. As a result of his activities, the land is said to have had rest for a period of forty years. Jephthah was the judge who made a vow to Yahweh: If Yahweh would grant him victory in his war with the Ammonites, Jephthah would offer as a sacrifice whatever first came out of his house on his return home. The victory was achieved, and on his way home, he was met first by his own daughter. With great emotion, he told her of his vow and shortly thereafter carried it out.

Samson, one of the more prominent judges, tricked the Philistines on several occasions. At one time, he slew thousands of them with the jawbone of an ass. His affair with Delilah, who betrayed him to the Philistines, cost him his eyesight, but ultimately he was restored to Yahweh’s favor and was able to pull down the temple that housed the Philistine god Dagon. Many other judges are mentioned, and some interesting stories are related concerning a few of them. The historian of this period was convinced that Israel should have had a different type of leadership and expresses this attitude in these words: “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit.”

 

1 and 2 Samuel

 

The two books of Samuel record an important transition in political organization. The period of the judges came to an end with Samuel, who is also referred to as a seer and a prophet, and who anointed Saul to be the first king of Israel. The history of the monarchy contained in these books is believed to have been compiled during the reign of King Josiah of Judah. Because of the reformation that he inaugurated, Josiah was regarded as a great king. Under his leadership, the aspirations for Israel’s future hopefully would soon be realized, for it seemed reasonable enough to suppose that Israel’s troubles during the early period of the settlement in Canaan were due to the fact that the people had no king to rule over them, at least according to certain parts of Samuel. However, the story as we have it now is a bit confusing because the compiler of Samuel used some source materials that express an opposite idea. We are told that the establishment of the monarchy was a great achievement, but we also read that it was Israel’s greatest mistake. According to the latter view, Samuel warned his people of the dangers involved in having a king, and only after their persistent demands did Yahweh relent and allow them to have their own way.

Because the career of Samuel marks an important transition point in the history of the Hebrew people, many stories concerning him are preserved. In 1 Samuel, we read that even before Samuel was born, he was dedicated to Yahweh. His birth was a miraculous event, for his mother, Hannah, had been childless. While only a small boy, Samuel was taken to the home of Eli, a priest, so that he might be reared under influences that would prepare him for his future work. One night, Yahweh called to Samuel and spoke a message of reproof that Samuel was to deliver to Eli. On another occasion, when the elders of Israel gathered for a consultation concerning their political future, they called upon Samuel to select someone to be anointed as king, but here we have two conflicting accounts: According to one account, Samuel protested vigorously against a movement of this kind; in the other account, Saul arrived at Samuel’s house after a prolonged search for his father’s lost animals, but Samuel was warned in advance of Saul’s coming, and knowing that Yahweh’s chosen leader was before him, Samuel made arrangements for him to be anointed as king. The brief account of Saul’s reign also appears to be based on conflicting source materials. The most probable explanation for this conflict is that these sources were written by both supporters and detractors of the idea of a monarchy for Israel.

Saul’s disobedience in sparing the life of the Amalekite king, along with animals that were offered as sacrifices, was bitterly denounced by Samuel. This failure on the part of Saul is used as an introduction to the story of David. Samuel, in response to instruction that he received from Yahweh, went to the home of a certain Jesse who had several sons, one of whom was to be selected as king in place of Saul. David, although the youngest of Jesse’s sons, was chosen. Eventually Saul became jealous of David, and his antagonism is illustrated in a number of different stories. 1 Samuel closes with an account of the war with the Philistines and Saul’s tragic death on Mount Gilboa.

2 Samuel is concerned almost entirely with the career of David. An excerpt from the Book of Yashur the Upright reports a eulogy spoken by David in commemoration of Saul and Jonathan. An account is given of the way in which David was made king first over Judah and later over all of Israel. The story of Abner, Saul’s trusted general, is followed by a short poem, in which David expresses lamentation over the way in which Abner met his death. We are told how David captured the city of Jerusalem and made it the headquarters of his kingdom, how the ark was brought to Jerusalem, and how David achieved many victories. David’s sin against Uriah is reported, as is the way in which he was reproved by Nathan the prophet. Absalom’s rebellion is narrated at considerable length, and the book ends with the story of David’s sin in numbering the people of Israel.

Analysis

The history that is recorded in these historical writings represents the points of view of post-exilic writers. In their accounts of the events that followed the entrance of the Hebrews into the land of Canaan, the writers were influenced by the religious ideals and practices current at the time when they lived. The primary purpose of the history is not to preserve an accurate record of what happened in the past but rather to emphasize the religious lessons that are illustrated in the course of events. The Deuteronomic law of the Central Sanctuary, the regulations embodied in the Holiness Code, and the detailed instructions of the Priests Code were considered extremely important for the preservation of the Hebrew religion. By projecting these ideals and institutions back to the early history of the Hebrew people, the writers intended to show that such codes and laws were not innovations invented by contemporary priests but rather were continuations of principles recognized as far back as the time of Moses. Further support for these institutions was provided by showing that the course of Hebrew history was determined primarily by the attitude of these people with regard to the requirements specified in these codes.

In writing their history, these Old Testament authors made use of older source materials, including the Book of the Wars of Yahweh, the Book of Yashur the Upright, “The Song of Deborah,” and other fragments of the early literature available to them. The primitive character of some of these sources is understandable given that they were produced in an earlier age, going back as far as the period of the united kingdom and in some instances even earlier than that, which helps explain in part the strange and barbaric stories that are incorporated into the history. Actions that would not have been condoned at all in later times are related without any apparent censure or blame. In their original form, these sources represent a period of Hebrew history that preceded the teachings of the great prophets and the corresponding development of ethical ideals.

Because these sources were produced by men who held opposing views about such institutions as the establishment of the monarchy, we can see why conflicting accounts of the same event are found side by side in the Old Testament history. In some instances, two different accounts are presented without any attempt to reconcile the disagreements. At other times, explanatory passages inserted by editors and copyists in an attempt to harmonize the accounts with one another are detectable. Despite these conflicts, throughout this history the underlying conception of a moral order characterizes the historical process. This moral order in the historic process illustrates what the Hebrew writers believed to be the divine element in history. Obedience to Yahweh’s commands was certain to cause consequences quite different from the ones that were sure to follow disobedience of these same commands. To the prophetic historians, either obeying or disobeying Yahweh’s directives meant choosing between life and death, respectively.

The Historical Writings: 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah

Summary

1 and 2 Kings

Often called the Deuteronomic History of the Kings of Israel and Judah because of the prominence attached to the Deuteronomic law of the Central Sanctuary, Kings discusses the attitudes of Israel’s kings toward the observance of the law of the Central Sanctuary as the most important factor in their various reigns. In this respect, the kings’ conduct determined more than anything else whether they did that which was evil or that which was good in the sight of Yahweh. Although some of the kings ruled for a comparatively long time and others occupied the throne for only a brief period, all were judged by the same standards. Any king who failed to destroy the high places of worship or permitted the people to offer sacrifices at any place other than the Temple in Jerusalem was said to have performed evil in the sight of Yahweh and was responsible for the disasters that fell upon the nation.

Kings begins with the history of the kingdom at the point where the history ends in Samuel and continues the account until the time of King Josiah of Judah. The work is divided into three parts: The first part deals with the united kingdom under David and Solomon; the second division discusses the parallel history of the divided kingdom until the fall of Samaria; and part three focuses only on the southern kingdom of Judah. The writer used a number of sources, including the Book of the Acts of Solomon, the “Temple Annals,” stories about Elisha, and other documents that report particular events. Taking from these sources only the materials that were suited to his purpose, the Kings author shaped the materials to emphasize the lessons that he wanted to teach.

1 Kings begins with an account of how Solomon was chosen as the successor of King David. The author of this history was evidently an admirer of Solomon, for he credits him with great wisdom in administering the affairs of the kingdom. He tells of the prayer that Solomon offered at the dedication of the Temple and of his wise decisions in dealing with difficult problems. He does mention that Solomon did not destroy the high places of worship and that Solomon brought many foreign wives to the court in Jerusalem, conduct that the writer strongly suggests is the main reason for the rebellion and division of the monarchy that occurred after Solomon’s death.

The second part of the history follows a very definite pattern in describing the activities of the kings of both the northern and the southern kingdoms. The writer begins by telling when it was that a king began his reign and for how long his reign lasted. Next, he states whether the king was good or evil. In some instances, the record of events that occurred during the reign of a particular king is fairly long, while in others it is comparatively short, but the standard of judgment is always the same: the attitude of a king toward the law of the Central Sanctuary. The writer regards a king’s permitting worship at any of the local shrines, or so-called high places, as a more serious offense than any other form of social injustice. Because the only legitimate sanctuary was located in Jerusalem, which was now the capital of the southern kingdom, the kings of the north did not have access to it; consequently, any worship that they authorized had to take place at some local site, which is why the writer of Kings opens his account of each one of the northern kings by saying “He did evil in the eyes of the Lord.” Of course, the southern kings did not always destroy the high places either, but the writer is more charitable in dealing with them: He usually finds some excuse for their failure in this respect.

An interesting feature in this second part of the history is the system of chronology that the writer uses. Dates are recorded in terms of the number of years that the corresponding ruler of the other kingdom has reigned. For example, one northern king is said to have begun his reign during the fifth year of the corresponding king of the southern kingdom.

The history’s third part focuses only on Judah. The northern kingdom is held in captivity because of the transgressions of its inhabitants; now, only in the southern kingdom are the hopes of the Hebrew people to be realized. King Hezekiah’s reign is described at greater length than those of most of the other kings because the writer regards him as a great reformer. The invasion of the Judean kingdom by the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib is reported, as is the visit to Jerusalem by Merodach-Baladan of Babylon. The reign of Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son, lasted for over fifty years but is passed over lightly, as is the reign of his son and successor, Amon, who was assassinated. With the coming to the throne of King Josiah, Amon’s son, the writer expresses great optimism, for it was during Josiah’s reign that the law book was discovered in the Temple and the great reformation inaugurated. Probably at this point, the Kings writer ended his history, for scholars assume that Josiah was still king when the author wrote. Later writers extended the Deuteronomic history, but their work is recorded in Judges, Samuel, and other portions of the Old Testament.

1 and 2 Chronicles

If the Deuteronomic law is the standard of judgment in 1 and 2 Kings, then the Priests Code is the standard in 1 and 2 Chronicles. Chronicles’ history appears to have been written later than Kings’; the date usually given is approximately 300 B.C. The authors of the two books have the advantage of using the Deuteronomic history, as well as the many other documents that appeared prior to 300 B.C., as source material. Apparently, they accepted the older histories’ idea that personal suffering and national disasters are punishments for wrongdoing, while long life and material prosperity are rewards for righteous conduct.

This conception of punishments and rewards adequately explains some historical events, but other events contradict this view. For example, King Uzziah, whose reign preceded Isaiah’s becoming a prophet, was regarded as one of the ablest and best kings of Judah, yet he was smitten with leprosy and died in a leper colony; King Manasseh, judged by all the accepted standards of both priests and prophets, was a wicked man but reigned for more than half a century and died a natural death; and Josiah, the good king who started the Deuteronomic reformation and followed as closely as he could the teachings of the great prophets, was slain on the field of battle, and his son was taken to Egypt as a prisoner. The chronicler felt it necessary to explain these events. Believing as he did that Yahweh orders the course of events, he interpreted the entire course of Hebrew history from the point of view of the laws and regulations embodied in the Priests Code.

The introduction to Chronicles consists of a brief sketch of the period from Adam to David, whom the chronicler idealizes—in contrast to the record preserved in 1 and 2 Samuel. The law of the Central Sanctuary is projected back into this early period by identifying it with the tabernacle that the Israelites carried with them in their march through the wilderness. The Priests Code, too, is presumed to have been in force during the early periods of Hebrew history. No mention is made of the kings of northern Israel: The assumption is that the people in that kingdom were no better than heathens and, as a consequence of their behavior, were no longer to be counted among the true people of Israel.

Ezra

This book, which along with the Book of Nehemiah is also part of the history produced by the writers of Chronicles, contains ten chapters, six of which are concerned almost entirely with recounting events that led to the return of the Jews to Jerusalem. Ezra had in his possession a royal decree authorizing him to make the return along with all the Jews who wished to return with him. As soon as they entered Jerusalem, they built an altar and later rebuilt the Temple, having overcome Samaritan opposition. Ezra protests against the intermarriage of Jews with foreigners and insists that such guilty Jews should obtain divorces from their spouses.

Nehemiah

In the first part of this book, Nehemiah is presented as the cup bearer to Artaxerxes, the Persian king who granted Nehemiah permission to visit the city of Jerusalem. During this visit, Nehemiah takes an active part in helping to rebuild the walls that were demolished. The book’s second part centers on Ezra rather than on Nehemiah. Ezra gathers the people into o...

Table of contents

• Title Page
• Contents
• Copyright
• THE OLD TESTAMENT
• About the Old Testament of the Bible
• Introduction
• Summary and Analysis
• The Prophetic Books: Amos
• The Prophetic Books: Hosea
• The Prophetic Books: Isaiah
• The Prophetic Books: Micah
• The Prophetic Books: Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk
• The Prophetic Books: Jeremiah
• The Prophetic Books: Ezekiel
• The Prophetic Books: Deutero-Isaiah
• The Prophetic Books: The Post-Exilic Prophets
• The Historical Writings: Overview
• The Historical Writings: The Pentateuch
• The Historical Writings: Joshua, Judges, and 1 and 2 Samuel
• The Historical Writings: 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah
• The Wisdom Literature: Overview
• The Wisdom Literature: Job
• The Wisdom Literature: Ecclesiastes
• The Wisdom Literature: Proverbs
• Miscellaneous Writings: Overview
• Miscellaneous Writings: Jonah, Ruth, and Esther
• Miscellaneous Writings: Daniel
• Miscellaneous Writings: Psalms
• Miscellaneous Writings: Lamentations and Song of Songs
• The Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha: Overview
• The Apocrypha
• The Pseudepigrapha
• Study Help
• Quiz
• THE NEW TESTAMENT
• About the New Testament of the Bible
• Introduction
• Summary and Analysis
• The Pauline Letters: Overview
• The Pauline Letters: Galatians
• The Pauline Letters: 1 and 2 Thessalonians
• The Pauline Letters: 1 and 2 Corinthians
• The Pauline Letters: Romans
• Letters Written in Captivity
• The Synoptic Gospels and Acts: Overview
• The Synoptic Gospels and Acts: The Gospel of Mark
• The Synoptic Gospels and Acts: The Gospel of Matthew
• The Synoptic Gospels and Acts: The Gospel of Luke
• The Synoptic Gospels and Acts: Acts
• The Pastoral Letters
• Open Letters to the Churches
• The Letter to the Hebrews
• The Book of Revelation
• The Gospel of John
• Study Help
• Quiz