New Testament Theology

Leon Morris

• Publisher: Zondervan Academic
• Year: 2011
• ISBN:
  9780310873426
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblical Reference

This work is not a history of New Testament times, nor an account of New Testament religion. Nor does it proceed from a view that the New Testament was written as theology. We must bear in mind that the writers of the New Testament books were not writing set theological pieces. They were concerned with the needs of the churches for which they wrote. Those churches already had the Old Testament, but these new writings became in time the most significant part of the Scriptures of the believing community. As such, they should be studied in their own right, and these questions should be asked: What do these writings mean? What is the theology they express or imply? What is of permanent validity in them? We read these writings across a barrier of many centuries and from a standpoint of a very different culture. We make every effort to allow for this, but we never succeed perfectly. In this book I am trying hard to find out what the New Testament authors meant, and this not as an academic exercise, but as the necessary prelude to our understanding of what their writings mean for us today. -- From the Introduction

Part one
The Pauline Writings

Paul was a very gified man, and his wide and effective ministry¹ was helped by the fact that he was equally at home in two worlds, the world of Judaism and the world of Hellenism (perhaps we should add a third—the world of Rome). He was “an Israelite, of the seed of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin” (Rom. 11:1; cf. 2 Cor. 11:22), a fact in which he clearly gloried. Of fleshly descent and achievement he could write, “If any other man has confidence in the flesh, I have more; circumcised the eighth day, of the nation Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; with regard to the law, a Pharisee, with regard to zeal, persecuting the church, with regard to righteousness in the law, blameless” (Phil. 3:4-6). His manner of life accorded with his deep conviction that the way to God was not that of obedience to the law, yet on occasion his practice could be Judaic; for example, Luke tells us that at Cenchrea he had his hair cut off because of a vow (Acts 18:18), evidently a Nazirite vow.² Although he became a fervent believer in Christ and, indeed, gave his entire life over to living for Christ and preaching Christ, he did not go back on his Judaism. He could ask, “What, then, is the advantage of the Jew? or what is the profit of circumcision?” and though the logic of his argument leads us to expect the answer “Nothing,” his answer is “Much in every way…” (Rom. 3:1-2). Throughout his writings he makes constant appeal to the Jewish Scriptures, and it is clear that to the end of his days it mattered to him that God had given such a treasure to his nation.

There is a marked difference in the way he handled Greek writings. It is clear from Paul’s grasp of the Greek language that all the treasures of Greek literature were open to him, but in all his writings he quotes from a Greek author only twice (1 Cor. 15:33; Titus 1:12; Luke tells of another quotation, this one in a sermon, Acts 17:28). Paul’s interest was in the Old Testament; he quotes from it constantly, and, interestingly, he quotes mostly from the Sepruagint (Greek) rather than from the Hebrew.

Paul identified with Israel. Even in writing to Gentiles he calls Abraham “our forefather” and Isaac “our father” (Rom. 4:1; 9:10), and he refers to “all our fathers” (1 Cor. 10:1). He looks for peace on “the Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16).³ Perhaps this identification is nowhere as poignant as in his emotional treatment of the problem of Israel’s rejection of the Messiah. Christ meant everything to him (Phil. 3:8), but he could wish himself accursed from Christ if only that would avail for his fellow Israelites (Rom. 9:3). It is plain from all he wrote that Paul valued his Jewish heritage highly. Even though it could not compare with the Christian way (2 Cor. 3:11), he still saw it as having “glory” (Rom. 9:4; 2 Cor. 3:7). He was unlike many converts to a new religion who become very bitter against the faith they have forsaken. Paul was a Christian through and through, but he was also an Israelite through and through, and we will not make sense of his writings unless we bear this mind.⁴

But, although he was so thoroughly Jewish and apparently at first thought his ministry would be among Jews (Acts 22:17—20), his work turned out to be largely among Gentiles. He was equipped for this in that he was a citizen of Tarsus, where he had had a good education and became thoroughly familiar with the way of life in the world of Hellenistic culture. He was a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37; 22:25-28), in which capacity he made his well-known appeal to Caesar (Acts 25:11). It accords with this citizenship that he urges the Romans to be subject to the governing authorities (Rom. 13:1—7) and says that prayer should be made for kings and all in authority (1 Tim. 2:1-3). Clearly he valued his heritage, both Greek and Roman.

Jew though he was, Paul made it clear that the work to which he was called was largely to be done among the other nations of the world. He was the apostle to the Gentiles (Rom. 11:13), “a minister of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles” (Rom. 15:16); his call was to preach Christ among the Gentiles (Gal. 1:16; Eph. 3:8). He spoke of an agreement with the Jerusalem apostles whereby he and Barnabas were to go to the Gentiles, while James, Peter, and John went to Jews (Gal. 2:9). He called himself “the prisoner of Christ Jesus on behalf of…the Gentiles” (Eph. 3:1), and “a teacher of Gentiles” (1 Tim. 2:7; also, in some MSS, 2 Tim. 1:11).

This complex background complicates our study of Paul’s writings. So does the apostle’s literary style. He rushes on, often leaving out words he expected his readers to supply (and which they hope they are supplying correctly!). He is an original thinker, sometimes struggling with language to say things that no one had said before. This increases our difficulty and at the same time makes our quest the more rewarding.⁵

There is, of course, considerable dispute about which writings are Paul’s. These days many scholars hold that the Pastoral Epistles do not come from this great apostle (though he may have written some fragments that are embedded in these letters). Not a few have their doubts about Ephesians and/or Colossians, while 2 Thessalonians is also rejected by some. To go into discussions about the authenticity of all these writings would involve a major digression from my main theological purpose. So let me simply say that I propose to include them all as belonging within the scope of this study. Good reasons have been urged for accepting all of them as Pauline,⁶ and, while many remain unconvinced, at least there is something about them all that in the judgment of the church led them to be accepted as products of Paul. In the broad sense of the term they are “Pauline”;⁷ they stand apart from writings like those of John or the Synoptics. We may well consider them together.

Some scholars trace development in Paul’s thought from the earlier to the later letters, but this is probably a vain pursuit. The letters all come from a comparatively short period of time toward the end of Paul’s life. But Paul had been a Christian and a preacher for seventeen or more years before writing the first of his extant letters. His essential position must have been established well before he wrote his letters. The differences in the letters are to be accounted for by the different circumstances of the apostle and the different situations that called them forth, rather than by some supposed development in his thinking.

We must bear in mind the fact that Paul’s writings are real letters, letters written to real people who had real problems. He never attempts to set out in order a summary of his theology. Because of the way some themes keep coming up, and because of the way Paul treats them, we can deduce that they are important. But where there was no controversy he said little, and this includes important topics like the authority of Scripture or the personality of God. All Paul’s letters are occasional writings, not chapters in a systematic theology, and we must be on our guard against thinking that we can set out in orderly fashion a summary of all the theological topics he saw as important. But all that he writes is theologically informed, and this enables us to say things with confidence. We may not be able to set forth systematically “the theology of St. Paul,” but we can certainly say that Paul gave expression to some important theological ideas. Whether these ideas present a complete theology or not, they make a rewarding study.

We should not overlook the fact that these writings were produced early. While there is uncertainty about some of the dating, Paul’s first extant letter must have been written within about twenty years of the Crucifixion, and the main body of his writings was completed within a very few years. Thus it did not take long for the essentials of Christian doctrine to appear in their Pauline formulation. This fact is significant especially in a day when some critics give the impression that for many years the early church was busy evolving and shaping what came to be Christian orthodoxy.

There are those who hold that Paul took over a good deal from the primitive church,⁸ but this raises the question, “What primitive church?” There is no reason to doubt Martin Hengel’s estimate that Paul was converted “somewhere between 32 and 34.”⁹ There were certainly some Christians before Paul, but not many. If anyone belonged to the “early” church Paul did; and when Christian tradition was established, he played a part in establishing it.¹⁰ Let me say with the utmost plainness that there is no reason at all for holding that there was significant growth in Christian theology before Paul became a Christian. His theology is very full and very profound—and very early. But Paul’s writing is solid evidence that the basic Christian position was firmly established before the middle of the first century, less than twenty years after Jesus’ death. Later writers add much, but Paul’s theology is rich and full, and its early date is significant.

1
God at the center

Paul’s great interest is in God.¹ We usually take it for granted that a New Testament writer will be writing about God, and this assumption is not unjustified. But we usually do not notice the fact that Paul uses the name of God with astonishing frequency.² His usage is distinctly exceptional. He refers to God far more often than does anyone else in the New Testament. He has more than 40 percent of all the New Testament references to God (548 out of 1,314)—a very high proportion. It is really extraordinary that one writer, whose writings total about a quarter of the New Testament, should have nearly half the total number of references to God. In Romans³ he uses the word God 153 times, an average of once in every 46 words. It is not easy to use any word as often as that.⁴ Paul does not keep up this rate throughout his correspondence, but in all his letters he speaks of God often.

Paul was a God-intoxicated man, and he spoke constantly about the One who was central in his thinking.⁵ Everything he dealt with he related to God. He taught that God is sovereign over life in all of its aspects, so that there is no part of our experience of which we can say that God is irrelevant to that. Paul saw God as important everywhere in the present time and he looked forward to a time when God would be “all in all” (1 Cor. 15:28).

ONE GLORIOUS GOD

Like any good Jew, Paul is a strict monotheist; there is and can be only one God (Rom. 3:30; 1 Cor. 8:4, 6; Gal. 3:20; Eph. 4:6; 1 Tim. 1:17; 2:5). That one God he sees as the Father of his people (Rom. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. 1:2-3; Gal. 1:3-4; Eph. 4:6; 5:20; Phil. 1:2; 1 Tim. 1:2; 2 Tim. 1:2; Titus 1:4), and the Father is clearly a great God. All the depths of riches, wisdom, and knowledge are his (Rom. 11:33); Paul may sometimes prefer to link the power and the wisdom with Christ, but it is still the power and the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:24; cf. 2:5, 7). The power by which Christ lives is from God (2 Cor. 13:4), and the Christian’s abundant power for living comes from God (2 Cor. 4:7; 6:7; 13:4; 2 Tim. 1:8). From another point of view all power and authority in the civil state derive from God (Rom. 13:1—7). Paul is interested in different kinds of power and in the fact that in the end it is only God who gives it (whatever kind it may be).

Akin to this is Paul’s interest in glory (he uses the word 77 times, nearly 47 percent of its New Testament occurrences). Once he complains that sinners come short of God’s glory (Rom. 3:23; cf. 1:23), and he can refer to a human “hope of the glory of God” (Rom. 5:2). But more often he delights in God’s glory (2 Cor. 4:6, 15; Phil. 2:11) or sees it as a motive for conduct: we should, like Abraham, “give glory to God” (Rom. 4:20; cf. 15:7; 1 Cor. 10:31; 2 Cor. 1:20; Phil. 1:11). Frequently he speaks of “glorifying” God (Rom. 15:6, 9; 1 Cor. 6:20; 2 Cor. 9:13: Gal. 1:24). The God who is so central to Paul is a glorious God.

Sometimes Paul refers to divine qualities. He sees God as “living” (1 Tim. 3:15; 4:10), as “faithful” (1 Cor. 1:9; 10:13; 2 Cor. 1:18), as “living and true” (1 Thess. 1:9). God “cannot lie” (Titus 1:2). The apostle speaks of the God “of endurance and encouragement” (Rom. 15:5), of “the God of hope” (Rom. 15:13), and of “the God of all encouragement [or consolation]” (2 Cor. 1:3; cf. 1:4; 7:6). God is “the God of love and peace” (2 Cor. 13:11), “the God of peace” (Rom. 15:33; cf. 1 Cor. 14:33; Phil. 4:9; 1 Thess. 5:23). Paul also assures us that the God of peace “will crush Satan under [our] feet” (Rom. 16:20); this statement shows God as active and gives a new dimension to our understanding of peace. Peace is certainly not a quiescent state; it is compatible with militant opposition to evil. Paul, then, can speak of God’s qualities, but it is characteristic of his writings that he more commonly refers to what God is doing than to his nature and state.

PREDESTINATION

Paul is insistent that the will of God is being done; he speaks of this repeatedly (e.g., Rom. 1:10; 12:2; 1 Cor. 1:1; 4:19; Eph. 1:1, 4-5, 11; Col. 1:1; 4:12; 1 Thess. 5:18). The central truth of Christianity is that Christ “gave himself for our sins,” and he did this “according to the will of our God and Father” (Gal. 1:4),⁶ a thought that Paul repeats in a variety of ways. Thus there is made known “through the church, the manifold wisdom of God according to the eternal purpose which he worked out in Christ Jesus our Lord, in whom we have boldness…” (Eph. 3:10-12).⁷ Paul speaks of this wisdom as hidden and that which “God foreordained before the ages for our glory” (1 Cor. 2:7; cf. Rom. 16:25-27). It has now been made known to the saints “to whom God willed to make known what is the richness of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles” (Col. 1:26-27). There is a strong argument for predestination in the opening chapter of Ephesians, where we read that believers were chosen in Christ before the foundation of the world (v. 4) and were predestined for adoption through Jesus Christ (v. 5). God’s “good pleasure” was purposed in Christ (v. 9), and believers were predestined according to the plan of him “who works all things according to the purpose of his will” (v. 11).

Predestination as Paul saw it gives assurance: ‘Those whom he foreknew, he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son…and those whom he predestined, these he also called, and those whom he called, these he also justified; and those whom he justified, these he also glorified” (Rom. 8:29-30). Moffatt translates Romans 11:29 in this way: “God never goes back upon his gifts and call.” Left to ourselves, we would never be certain that we had done what was necessary for our salvation. But we are not left to ourselves: God has predestined and called his own. This is a way of saying that our entire salvation, from first to last, is of God. We have the assurance that God chose us before the foundation of the world and that he does not go back on his calling. Nothing can give us assurance like that.

We should also notice that God predestines people for ethical achievement. Paul does not see this doctrine as a magnificent incentive to laziness. Rather, we are “created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand that we might walk in them” (Eph. 2:10). Because we are God’s elect, we are to “put on a heart of compassion, goodness, humility, gentleness, longsuffering” (Col. 3:12). Predestination is not for privilege, but for service. It is a reminder that good works are not optional for the believer, but the very object for which we are predestined.

GOD WILL JUDGE⁸

Now if God intends us to do good works it follows that he is not indifferent to the way we live. One day he will call on us to give account of ourselves (Rom. 3:19). Paul refers often to the fact that evil deeds register before God. For example, people who boast in the law and yet break it are not simply making themselves into hypocrites and treating the law lightly, but they are dishonoring God (Rom. 2:23); they are causing his name to be blasphemed (v. 24). When Paul quotes from Scripture to show that people are evil, the passages he cites relate this to God: “no one searches for God”; “there is no fear of God before their eyes” (Rom. 3:11, 18). Again, the trouble with “the mind of the flesh” is that it is hostile to God; it does not and cannot submit to God’s law; it cannot please God (Rom. 8:7-8). Therein lies the tragedy of the natural man. People may talk back to God (Rom. 9:20) and disobey him (Rom. 11:30). Even religious people, those zealous for God, may be bereft of knowledge in spiritual things; they may not perceive that saving righteousness is “the righteousness of God” and accordingly do what is quite wrong; they may try to establish their own righteousness (Rom. 10:3). There are those who use the Word of God for their own profit (2 Cor. 2:17) or handle it craftily (2 Cor. 4:2). Paul knows of people who are without God (Eph. 2:12) or are alienated from the life of God (Eph. 4:18)—people who do not please God (1 Thess. 2:15) or who do not know him (1 Thess. 4:5; 2 Thess. 1:8) or who despise him (1 Thess. 4:8; cf. 2 Cor. 10:5).

Paul, then, does not see evil in all its varied forms simply as so many ethical misdemeanors. He relates it all to God. It is a dishonoring of God, a failure to fear God, a hostility to God, and more. And God takes knowledge of it. People are responsible for their actions. We will be called on to give an account of ourselves, and we will be liable to punishment for those deeds in which we come short of what we should have accomplished. This has been so from the beginning, for “the judgment came from one sin [or one man] issuing in condemnation” (Rom. 5:16). It matters little whether we read “one sin” or “one man,” for both Adam and his sin are...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Table of Contents
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• Introduction
• Part one The Pauline Writings
• Part two The synoptic gospels and Acts
• Part three The Johannine Writings
• Part four The general epistles
• Conclusion
• Copyright
• About the Publisher
• Share Your Thoughts