Suleiman the Magnificent

Andre Clot

• Publisher: Saqi Books
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9780863568039
• Topic: Teología y religión
• Subtopic: Teología islámica

Suleiman the Magnificent, most glorious of the Ottoman sultans, kept Europe atremble for nearly half a century. In a few years he led his army as far as the gates of Vienna, made himself master of the Mediterranean and established his court in Baghdad. Faced with this redoubtable champion, who regarded it as his duty to extend the boundaries of Islam farther and farther, the Christian world struggled to unite against him. 'The Shadow of God on Earth', but also an expert politician and all-powerful despot, Suleiman ruled the state firmly with the help of his viziers. He extended the borders of the empire beyond what any of the Ottoman sultans had achieved, yet it is primarily as a lawgiver that he is remembered in Turkish history. His empire held dominion over three continents populated by more than thirty million inhabitants, among whom nearly all of the races and religions of mankind were represented. Prospering under a well-directed, authoritarian economy, Suleiman's reign marked the apogee of Ottoman power. City and country alike experienced unprecedented economic and demographic growth. Istanbul was the largest city in the world, enjoying a remarkable renaissance of arts and letters; a mighty capital, it was the seat of the Seraglio and dark intrigue. 'Clot's informed and intelligent study is to be commended … Brings back to life a man, an empire and an era.' -- Digest of Middle East Studies 'Excellent... The best book from which to gain an introduction to Suleiman's era.' -- Middle East Journal

Part One

The Sultan of Sultans

1

The Padishah’s First Triumphs

Suleiman I – ‘the Magnificent’ to Europeans, ‘the Lawgiver’ to the Turks – was born in Trabzon (Trebizond), on the shores of the Black Sea, probably on 6 November 1494. In the very same year, his father, Prince Selim, took over as governor of the province, which had been conquered from the Comneni about three decades earlier by Mehmed II. Thanks to its position between the Greek world, the Caucasus and the Islamic countries, this major market town at the crossroads of several caravan routes had long enjoyed prosperity and finally collapsed more as a result of internal squabbles than from Muslim attacks. Abandoned by his allies, David, the last emperor, made over the keys of the city to the sultan on 15 August 1461. He was taken as a prisoner to Istanbul and executed a few years later.

The Shadow of the Father

The governorship of the province of Trabzon (which had been the last Byzantine territory in Asia) was of particular importance because of its proximity to Safavid Iran, which put out a constant stream of Shiite and anti-Ottoman propaganda throughout Eastern Anatolia. It was here that Selim spent fifteen years and thus became aware of the threat to the empire the heresy represented.

The former capital of the Comneni was a beautiful town spread over a series of hills which overlooked the sea and were separated by deep ravines. The last Byzantine emperors had built churches – some of them still survive – colonnades, markets and luxurious dwellings, all surrounded by a strong city wall. The imperial palace dominated the town, and it was probably here that Selim resided and that Suleiman was born.

We know hardly anything about the childhood of the future sultan, because nothing marked his father out as heir to the throne. Suleiman himself also seems to have had brothers who were executed much later.¹ There was thus no reason for Ottoman chroniclers to relate the childish exploits of Suleiman in particular, and stories of the early years of royal princes were, in any case, hardly one of their specialities. Besides, they knew little more about them than we do.

His mother, Hafsa Hatun, is believed to have been the daughter of Mengli Giray, the khan of the Crimean Tartars. The khans married Circassian women fairly often, which explains Suleiman’s Circassian features. She was apparently as intelligent as she was beautiful and was 17 years old at the time of Suleiman’s birth. She was also the last of the sultan’s royal wives; those who succeeded her were mostly slaves. Through her, the blood of Genghis Khan ran in Suleiman’s veins since the Crimean khans were descended from Jochi, the eldest son of the conqueror of Asia.

Suleiman’s childhood no doubt resembled that of all the other princes of the House of Osman – and most of the children of the upper classes – at the time. In his earliest years, he was looked after exclusively by his mother and her women servants. When he reached the age of 7, his father took personal control of his education. Selim was far from tender-hearted, and it is safe to assume that he brought up his son with great severity. A hoca,² well known for his wisdom and piety, also oversaw his studies.

His teachers taught him the Koran, reading and writing, arithmetic and music. They introduced him to physical exercise such as archery, which played a major role in the life of a young man. Around the age of 11, after being circumcised, he left his mother and the women’s quarters. A residence, servants and a budget were allotted to him. A tutor (lala) looked after his intellectual and physical education. Like all well-born young Turkish men of his age, Suleiman will have read the best-known books of the day: The History of the Forty Viziers, The History of Sinbad the Philosopher, Kalila and Dimna (the famous novel of Indian origin), The 1,001 Nights translated into Turkish and the chronicle of Seyyid Battal (Battal the Valiant), a real person, descended from the Prophet, whose courageous and adventurous life formed the basis of one of the earliest Anatolian Islamic epics. He certainly learnt Arabic, Mohammed’s language, and Persian. Since he possessed a gift for languages, he also proved able, when he became sultan, to converse with the members of his entourage who were of Balkan origin. In Ottoman society, princes were taught how to work with their hands: like his father, Suleiman learnt the skills of the goldsmith.

When he reached the age of 15, his grandfather Sultan Bayezid II, as was the established custom for Ottoman princes, appointed him as a provincial governor (sancakbey). The governorship of Karahisar (Şebinkarahisar³) was thus granted to him, but his uncle Ahmed – then heir to the throne – considered this small town to be too close to Amasya, where he himself was governor; Suleiman was therefore sent to Bolu. Then Ahmed pointed out that Bolu was on the road from Amasya to Istanbul, and it detracted from his dignity for his brother’s son – and thus his rival – to be appointed there. He was particularly afraid that on the day the throne became vacant, Suleiman might cut off his route to the capital. Finally, on 6 August 1509, the young prince left for Caffa (Theodosiya) in the Crimea, where he was to spend three years.

Caffa had long been a major Genoese trading post. It was there that some of the produce of India and Iran – spices, silk, cotton – ended up, whence they were transported by sea to the Mediterranean and sold all over Europe. It also possessed the dismal privilege of having been the starting point for the Black Death, which was brought by caravan from Central Asia around 1345 and then spread by way of Genoa throughout Europe, claiming millions of victims. Mehmed II had conquered the town, along with the rest of the Crimea in 1475, and had kept the khan, Mengli, in power there as a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. Some years later, his daughter had married one of Mehmed’s grandsons – Selim, the father of Suleiman.

The Law of Fratricide

Bayezid had not intended that Selim in particular, rather than one of his other sons, should inherit his empire. When the problem of succession arose, his five living sons all laid claim to the throne. Ahmed, the eldest, was a skilful politician, loved by the people though hardly by the janissaries. Korkud, more of a poet and a mystic than a soldier, was also unpopular with the janissaries. Selim, on the other hand, had their support, because of his tastes and the military talent he had already shown in attacking the Safavids. Soon the other two brothers died, leaving Ahmed, Korkud and Selim to fight it out. They each prepared for battle by obtaining governorships of provinces near Istanbul, so they could intervene rapidly when the succession crisis occurred. Selim assured himself of the support of the Crimean Tartars whose khan was his father-in-law. It was there that Suleiman came to his aid.

It took three years of fighting for Selim to achieve victory. Korkud revolted against his father in Asia, as did Selim in Europe. Defeated at Edirne, he had to seek refuge in the Crimea. At this point, however, Ahmed took up arms in turn and the sultan called on Selim, who brought about a spectacular intervention of the janissaries to compel Bayezid to give up his throne. The old sultan abdicated and set off to retire in Demotika, his place of birth. Death surprised him en route, a death by natural causes ‘helped along’, it is said, ‘by poison’.

Once Selim had become sultan, he had Korkud and the children of his other brothers strangled, then defeated Ahmed in battle and had him killed in the same way. It is said that when Korkud learnt of the sentence he sent his brother a poem accusing him of cruelty. The new sultan read it, apparently, with tears in his eyes.

After all these executions the House of Osman consisted only of the sultan himself and his children. There were several daughters, of whom one married the Grand Vizier Lutfi Pasha, another the vizier Mustafa Pasha, and a third, Hadice, married Ibrahim Pasha (who became Grand Vizier under Suleiman); there was only a single son, Suleiman – it is safe to assume that there had been other sons⁴ who had already been executed.

Suleiman was now 17. His father appointed him Governor (kaymakam) first of Istanbul and then of Sarukhan (Manisa) on the Aegean Sea. He was to remain there until his accession to the throne except at the time of the Iranian campaign, when his father gave him governorship of Edirne and then Istanbul. At Manisa, his main task was to fight banditry. The internal disputes which preceded and accompanied Bayezid’s abdication had deeply shaken that prosperous region, even though it was very close to the capital. It was Suleiman who managed to restore law and order. He thus acquired experience of government and administration which would prove very useful, particularly when he had to draw up the codes of law – Kanunname – which bear his name.

At Manisa, he was safe from the rage and suspicions of his fearsome father. It is said that Selim tried to do away with him by sending him a poisoned shirt, but that his mother made sure a page put it on instead; the unfortunate servant collapsed at once. No reliable source confirms this story, although Selim was certainly capable of anything.

Selim died suddenly while travelling from Istanbul to Edirne. The few people who were witnesses or learnt of his death – the Grand Chamberlain, the chief treasurer – all agreed to keep it a secret until Suleiman arrived. They convinced the viziers and other leading dignitaries to do the same. If news of the sovereign’s decease had been widely broadcast, the janissaries would probably have caused a good deal of disorder, which the new sultan could have suppressed only with great difficulty and at great cost. A messenger was sent to Suleiman. The young prince is said to have waited for confirmation of the news before setting off for the capital, where the Grand Vizier Piri Pasha had preceded him. He was afraid that it was just a subterfuge of his father’s which could cost him his life. When the janissaries were finally informed, they threw their bonnets on to the ground in grief but did not cause any trouble. The funeral cortège then set off for Constantinople.

On Sunday 30 September 1520, Suleiman arrived at Uskudar (Scutari), on the Asiatic coast of the Bosphorus. He immediately set out on three galleys, which took him and his entourage to the Seraglio where the Grand Vizier was waiting for him. The next morning, at dawn, the şeyhulislam, the ulema and the other chief dignitaries came to pay homage to him in the Divan (or council) chamber, then the new sultan went to Edirne Kapi to rejoin the funeral cortège. He followed it on foot as far as the fifth hill and ordered that a mosque be built there in honour of his father, who would rest in peace in a neighbouring tomb.

Like the Heavenly Dew . . .

The first act of Suleiman’s reign, as usage demanded, was to make an accession gift to the janissaries. They each asked for 5,000 akçe⁵ (aspers). In fact, they received 3,000 but their pay was increased. The other soldiers also received gratuities and pay rises. The dignitaries who had taken his side when he was heir to the throne were recompensed too. The new sultan wished to make clear at once that his would be a reign of justice and tolerance.

The eight years under Selim had been a long reign of terror. He was intelligent, cultivated (some of his verses count among the most beautiful in Ottoman poetry), a bold conqueror and a skilful politician, but he far outdid early members of the House of Osman in his willingness to execute people on all sides. He almost certainly hastened on his father’s end and executed all the males in his family, apart from Suleiman. ‘Is it not permitted to put to death two-thirds of the inhabitants of the empire for the greater good of the remaining third?’ he once asked the Grand Mufti, who refused to give his approval to a sentence condemning to death 400 traders who had not obeyed his edict forbidding commerce with Persia.

After this long bloodbath, Suleiman’s first acts of clemency appeared ‘like the heavenly dew on a sunny plain’. The sultan immediately ordered the release of 600 notables and Egyptian traders deported to Istanbul by his father. Foreign merchants whose goods had been confiscated were indemnified. Persian traders and artisans brought to Turkey after the Battle of Chaldiran were allowed to return home. Freedom of trade with Iran was re-established. Within weeks, the arbitrary decisions of Selim and his entourage were abrogated and those responsible punished. The chief admiral (kapudan pasha), Cafer Bey – known as ‘the Bloodthirsty’ because of his acts of cruelty – was hanged. From the first days of his reign, Suleiman made everybody understand that his empire would be governed with a firm but just hand. ‘My sublime commandment,’ he wrote to the Governor of Egypt, ‘as inescapable and as binding as fate, is that rich and poor, town and country, subjects and tribute payers – everyone must hasten to obey you. If some of them are slow to accomplish their duty, be they emirs or fakirs, do not hesitate to inflict on them the ultimate punishment.’

When he put on the sword of Osman in 1520, Suleiman was 25. We possess several descriptions of him at the time, including one by the Venetian ambassador, Bartolomeo Contarini: ‘He is tall but thin, with a delicate complexion. His nose is a little too long, his features fine and his nose aquiline. He has the shadow of a moustache and a short beard. His general appearance is pleasing, although he is a little pale.’⁶ This verbal portrait corresponds fairly closely with the profile drawn by Albrecht Dürer in 1526. Dürer, who never actually met him, based his picture on descriptions which the Venetians had given him. Another picture by Hieronymus Hopfer of a slightly later date is almost exactly the same as Dürer’s, although it shows the opposite profile. These portraits are also fairly close to the picture reproduced on the cover of this book, in which Suleiman appears slightly older.⁷ All reveal a hooked nose above a short upper lip, a prominent chin and small ears. His neck is long and thin. There is also a striking resemblance between Suleiman and his great-grandfather, Mehmed the Conqueror, whose portrait by Gentile Bellini⁸ survives. Suleiman’s expression is severe, and this is emphasized by his habit of wearing his turban very low, just above his eyes. His calm and sang-froid are the complete opposite of his father’s violent and irritable personality. His attitude is distant and possesses a natural majesty very fitting in a padishah who, like his grandfather, had world rule in mind.

The new sultan was a pious Muslim, but completely unfanatical. His attitude towards the Shiites, at least at the beginning of his reign, makes this quite clear. He was also tolerant towards Christians, as the Islamic religion demands, provided they carried out their obligations, such as paying taxes. Apart from that, the religion of his non-Islamic subjects was a matter of complete indifference to him.

When Suleiman came to power, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed enormous wealth and an unrivalled position in the Islamic world. With the Mamluk Empire crushed and Egypt and Syria annexed, the padishah’s prestige as caliph and protector of the Holy Cities was immense. The treasures of the sultans of Cairo and the revenues of both Egypt and Syria now belonged to him. The Safavids were no longer a threat – at least for the time being – and the defeats inflicted on the Venetians by sea, towards the end of Bayezid’s reign, made it clear to the Christian powers that the Turks would prove a formidable adversary. Selim had managed to make the Turkish army the greatest of its t...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface
• A Note on Pronunciation
• At the Dawn of the Golden Century
• Part One: The Sultan of Sultans
• Part Two: The Empire of Empires
• Three Centuries of Decline and Fall
• Notes
• Appendices
• Genealogy of the Sultans of the House of Osman
• Chronology, 1481–1598
• Glossary
• Bibliography
• Index