Frantz Fanon was born in Martinique in 1925. He left the island in 1943 to join the Free French Army. By the time he had been deployed to North Africa and then to France to take part in the Battle of Alsace in 1945, his enthusiasm for the French had soured. About his decision âto fight for an obsolete ideal,â he wrote to his mother that âhe was questioning everything, even himself,â discovering that free France was as racist as it had been under Vichy Franceâthe client and puppet state that Nazi Germany installed in France and the French colonies from 1940 to 1943. After the war, Fanon returned to Fort de France and worked on AimĂ© CĂ©saireâs bid for election as mayor on a Communist Party ticket.
In 1946, Fanon returned to France and began a medical degree at the University of Lyon.1 There, he studied philosophy (especially phenomenology and existentialism), politics, and psychoanalysis, reading Marx, Sartre, Freud, and Lacan. Alongside his degree, he took classes with philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty.2 Before completing his medical training, he switched to psychiatry and joined Lyonâs psychiatry department, which was then headed by Professor Jean Dechaume, a specialist in neurology who was fascinated by psychosurgery. According to Razanajao, Postel, and Allen (1996: 500), the whole psychiatry department took âa very organicist approach to neuropsychiatry.â In fact, neuropsychiatry was not yet a recognized discipline and most psychiatrists had little interest in psychoanalytical inquiry or methods. The departmentâs approach was âvery âbiologicalâ and anxiety cases were treated with shock therapy and intravenous injections of succyl!â3 (Razanajao, Postel, and Allen 1996: 500).
Reflecting on Fanonâs time in Lyon, François Tosquelles remarked that the Faculty of Medicine was a âcaricature ... of analytical Cartesianism applied to the pathological event.â The professional training of psychiatrists could be summed up as consisting of the conviction that in any circumstance the patient should be committed to a psychiatric institution. While under Dechaumeâs supervision, Fanon submitted what was later published as Black Skin, White Masks as his doctoral thesis. With its scathing critique of reductive biochemical approaches,4 the work also challenged what was considered traditional psychoanalytic thinking, arguing that in addition to ontogeny (in Freudian psychoanalysis), sociogeny should be considered (2008: xv). His approach to alienation was sociodiagnostic with a âbrutal awareness of the social and economic realitiesâ (2008: xiv). Since his earliest writings, Fanonian questions and research ânecessarily connect ... psychological structures to political, economic and geographical onesâ (Desai 2014: 66). Thus, from the opening pages of Black Skin, White Masks, Fanon did not dismiss psychoanalysis but solicited and interpolated it within a social framework.
At the time, psychiatry was generally indifferent to the overlapping issues of marginality, racism, psychic suffering, and violence and continued to repeat and reaffirm that black people were criminals, naturally violent, or simply crazy.5 To understand how Fanon was able to take such a radical step beyond the prevailing wisdom in his field, and the views of his academic peers and supervisors, it is important to know that his own reading and research had made him aware of crucial work being done in the United States and Britain in connecting mental disorders to class, race, and migration. In fact, the 1940s marked an important turning point in the United States with regard to mental health facilities for black people, particularly black children. In 1946, for example, a group of black psychologists and psychiatrists decided to offer clinical assistance to poor and marginalized people in Harlem, who, because of the racist attitudes of health professionals, had no easy access to health facilities and often became chronically ill.
The Lafargue Mental Hygiene Clinic was established in Harlem with an interracial group of psychiatrists and psychologists working under the guidance of Fredric Wertham, a German American psychiatrist. The group found inspiration in the work of Paul Lafargue, an Afro-Cuban French physician and Karl Marxâs son-in-law, who had been active in the struggle against the âracial prejudiceâ and oppression created by a âfalse scienceâ (an expression used in the clinicâs brochure).6 The clinic constituted a decisive experiment that was a singular response to the racism of existing health institutions:
In his book Under the Strain of Color: Harlemâs Lafargue Clinic and the Promise of an Antiracist Psychiatry, Gabriel Mendes noted that Richard Wright, a writer that Fanon admired, became a close friend of Werthamâs in the early 1940s. Wright âembraced psychoanalysis and other psychological sciences as a guide to understanding his own thinking and for plumbing the âinner landscapesâ of fictional charactersâ (Mendes 2015: 35).7 Wright was an important supporter of the Lafargue Clinic and a founding board member. He considered it essential to make public the âthe psychological and emotional effects of antiblack discrimination and segregationâ (Mendes 2015: 95). Although Wright left the United States for France only a year after the clinic opened, his article âPsychiatry Comes to Harlemâ described the clinic as an absolutely necessary institution, which âviolate[s]â ... the contemporary metaphysical canons of organized medicine in Americaâ (Wright 1946: 49).
Human needs metamorphose when they are forgotten or unrecognized, Wright observed, underscoring how among the dominated and subordinated, âsocial needsâ emerge in fragmented and pathological ways,8 only to surface later âin strange channels.â âPsychologically repressed needs ... go underground,â said Wright, searching for an âunguarded outlet ... gushing forth in a wild torrent, frantic lest a new taboo deprive it of the right to exist.â9 Repressed needs become âsymptomsâ or are simply labeled deviant and give rise to âartificially-made psychological problems.â For example, Wright noted, âHarlemâs 400,000 black people produced 53% of all the juvenile delinquents of Manhattan, which has a white population of 1,600,000â (Wright 1946: 49).
In the absence of mental health facilities for the black community, the clinic was established without the help of rich (white) benefactors. Its necessity was explained by Wrightâs poignant social and institutional diagnosis:
The Lafargue Clinic wanted to contest this state of things and Wrightâs intention, like Fanonâs, was to undermine the false explanations and medical objections, which he said appeared sadistic, âuttered not only with straight medical faces, but, indeed, with moral solemnity.â
Wright tackled six often-heard objections to the opening of the clinic (1946: 50). First, that the establishment of a mental health clinic in Harlem must wait for black psychiatrists: Wright responded, âRace hate and the quota system of our medical schools have made it well-nigh impossible for a Negro to receive such training.â Second, the clinic is not necessary because the social and mental problems of the black population are the rule. As Wright ironically put it: âAfter all, arenât Negroes âpleasure-loving,â âlazy,â âshiftless,â naturally inclined toward crime, slow of comprehension, and irresponsible?â Third, a mental health clinic for blacks in Harlem ghettoizes intervention, risking the extension of âthe already well-set pattern of racial segregation.â This, Wright replied, âneatly overlook[s]â that Harlem itself is an artificially made community!â Wright made it clear that he considered proponents of the fourth objection that âexisting institutions serving the mentally ill must be made to give up their racial prejudices against Negroes,â both hypocritical and sadistic. No law, he retorted, âcan possibly cope with the manifold dodges used by institutions to deprive Negroes of treatment.â11 Fifth, he stated that psychiatrists who insisted that âthe psychiatric need in Harlem is not more acute than other areas and singling out Harlem is a just a sign of âover-sensitivityââ were being âdangerously defensive about their racial prejudices.â Finally, he observed that when clinic staff stated that the cost of existing treatment was too high for the poor, black population, opponents of the service would inexorably remember âthat payment of psychiatric fees is considered an indispensable part of the psychotherapeutic process. And on and onâ (Wright 1946: 50). Wrightâs criticisms resonate with the politico-epistemological deconstruction Fanon advocated when faced with colonial psychiatry. The objectives of the clinic intimated Fanonâs later sociodiagnostic critique of racism in psychiatry.12
Wrightâs insightful analysis also anticipated other aspects of Fanonâs argument, offering precise counterpoints to the racial prejudices and contradictions characterizing psychiatry at that time. But beyond his uncommon interest in psychiatry, Wrightâs work questioned segregation, racial alienation, and the black condition, while offering a caustic analysis of American nation and its lies.13 Wright was not alone in this. His interest in Werthamâs adventure was shared by Ralph Ellison:
The connection between psychiatrists, black writers, and Anglican priests (the Lafargue Clinic operated from the basement of the parish house of St. Philipâs Episcopal Church in Harlem) against the background of racial and class conflict in New York is not without interest for those interested in investigating the implications of the clinicâs âsingular position at the intersection of the histories of literature and psychiatryâ (Campbell 2010: 443). For us, the connections clearly articulate with Fanon who considered Wrightâs novels and characters to be cornerstones of his investigations into black alienation.15 An awareness of Wrightâs engagement in the field of psychiatry, and of his call for another psychoanalysis (from the underground), is decisive in understanding the particular ways in which Fanon extracted his analysis of alienation from literature, film, and comic books, and presented this in Black Skin, White Masks.
Fanon scrutinized Mayotte CapĂ©cia and RenĂ© Maranâs characters, and discussed their novels in his book (including when he was writing it for submission as his doctoral thesis), posing a series of questions. What does the novelistâs imaginary say (and do) about the making and the unmaking of black self? What does it say about the internalization of oppression and subjugation on one hand and the building of French national identity on the other?16 How does it contribute to revealing and healing (or, alternatively, concealing) the roots of racial alienation? Could one consider the madness and violence of Wrightâs Native Son and the neurosis of Ellisonâs The Invisible Man as counterpoints to CapĂ©ciaâs Je suis martiniquaise (1948) and Maranâs Un homme pareil aux autres (1947)?
The Northside Center for Child Development opened in Harlem at the same time as the Lafargue Clinic. Its founders were the two black psychologists, Drs. Kenneth and Mamie Clark, who, in the late 1930s, had conducted the famous âdoll experimentsâ on identification among black children (Clark and Clark, 1939, 1940). The study is particularly relevant for understanding the impact of internalized racism and segregation on mental health. When asked to pick out the doll that âlooks bad,â eleven of the sixteen children in the study selected the black one. An often-overlooked question was the traumatic meaning of the test itself, for both the children and the psychologists. As Kenneth Clark remembered it,
Other scholars investigated the relationships between social discrimination, frustration, rage, or tension caused by repressed aggression (Kardiner and Ovesey 1951). Fanon did not mention these studies, or the work of the Clarks, in his writings but their conclusions are cons...