Contexts for Diversity and Gender Identities in Higher Education

Jaimie Hoffman, Patrick Blessinger, Mandla Makhanya, Jaimie Hoffman, Patrick Blessinger, Mandla Makhanya

• Publisher: Emerald Publishing Limited
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781787560581
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Higher Education

This volume provides educators with an understanding of challenges associated with equity and inclusion at higher education institutions globally and with evidence-based strategies for addressing the challenges associated with implementing equity and inclusion. Higher education institutions continue to address an increasingly complex set of issues regarding equity, diversity and inclusion; many face increasing pressure to find innovative solutions for eliminating access and participation barriers and mitigating practices that impede access, persistence, retention, and graduation rates in higher education. Using comparative international perspectives, this volume looks at how different nations and cultures experience power, privilege, identity, and inclusion with respect to participation in tertiary education, with a specific focus on gender identities.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO CONTEXTS FOR DIVERSITY AND GENDER IDENTITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Patrick Blessinger, Jaimie Hoffman and Mandla Makhanya

ABSTRACT

The chapters in this book focus on how higher education can cultivate and promote a more inclusive and equitable environment in higher education, especially with regard to gender diversity as well as those non-conforming, non-heteronormative groups. The chapters in this volume cover the broad picture/context of diversity in various countries as well as a specific focus on gender. The chapters discuss the factors relating to inclusion and equity, what is driving campuses to be more inclusive, and practical steps and case studies that higher education institutions can implement to create more inclusive and equitable learning environments. Finally, this volume discusses the need for inclusive leadership which involves building institutional capacity for inclusion and creating the right conditions under which inclusion and equity can grow and thrive and crafting policies and practices whose end result is to create a culture of inclusion.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to establish a more coherent understanding of the current movement, and consequent reforms, for cultivating and promoting a more diverse and equitable environment in higher education. In other words, what do such terms as inclusion and diversity mean within the context of higher education, and what factors are driving those reforms? These topics are important because the call for more equitable and inclusive educational environments is one of the main factors driving change in higher education today around the world. The focus on diversity, equality, equity, and inclusion has been driven by changing demographics (which has been fueled by such factors as internal and external migration and the rapid growth of urban areas) as well as wide-scale social movements driven by calls for greater equality and equity (which has been fueled by political, social, and economic disparities). The net result of these outcomes is a greater focus on the democratization of higher education and a greater focus on treating education at all levels as a human right (Blessinger & Anchan, 2015; Smith, 2014; OECD, 2008, 2009; UNESCO, 2009, 2016, 2017).

Central to diversity, equality, equity, and inclusion in higher education is the effort to widen participation in higher education, which is a necessary first step toward greater inclusion and equity. While widening access to higher education is not a sufficient condition to achieve equity and inclusion in higher education, it is nonetheless a necessary condition. Widening participation efforts have the common goal to improve access opportunities for all segments of society, especially those that have, historically, encountered major barriers to access, such as women, ethnic and racial minorities, students with disabilities, and students from poor economic backgrounds. Widening participation has been driven by increased global demand for higher education, which itself has been precipitated by legal reforms and human rights declarations in higher education as well as by calls to address social and economic inequities (Blessinger, 2016; Burke, 2012).

Thus, one of the main goals of equity and inclusion programs in higher education is to mitigate practices that tend to exclude people from higher education (e.g., along race, ethnicity, sex, gender, class, and ability lines). The main aim of such equity and inclusion programs is therefore to make access to higher education more fair and equitable. Equity and inclusion can be viewed in terms of access (i.e., entry to education), participation (i.e., educational engagement and attainment), and achievement (i.e., educational quality and outcomes). In other words, merely gaining entry into higher education does not guarantee that one is able to fully participate in higher education, and participation, in turn, does not guarantee that one is receiving a high-quality education that leads to increased employment opportunities, increased personal agency, increased social mobility, and increased quality of life. Within this multifaceted context, educational equity and inclusion initiatives strive to improve all three areas.

Since this chapter starts from the premise that inclusion is necessary to improving access, participation, and achievement, it is therefore worthwhile to first examine the different ways that exclusion takes places. Although the discourse around exclusion is often confined to access issues, exclusion also occurs within the areas of participation and achievement. This implies that higher education institutions must therefore carefully examine every aspect of their educational process in order to increase equity and inclusion. For example, exclusion in participation and achievement may include inadequate learning supports (e.g., remedial or tutoring services may not be available to those requiring extra learning support or learning accommodations), inadequate living conditions (e.g., the need for proper housing, security, and food), limited modes of delivery of learning (e.g., students unable to participate fully in learning due to restrictive course time–place conditions or only one way that courses are delivered), lack of meaningful learning experiences (e.g., programs, courses, and learning processes that do not meet the learning needs of all students), lack of positive social and personal experiences (e.g., negative experiences such as violence, prejudice, discrimination, and exploitation), or limited opportunities for professional development and community involvement (e.g., learning is limited to textbook learning, no contact with professionals or organizations in one’s field of study, no contact with faculty outside the classroom, and no learning acquired through community involvement).

It is important therefore to see the varied and complex ways in which exclusion limits the ways education is provided. As a result, educational development still remains a huge work in process. Awareness of the problem is of course a necessary first step. Once awareness occurs, then commitments must be made to address the problems through research and analysis to identify the gaps and hurdles that may be preventing institutions from creating a more inclusive and equitable educational environment. This may require a change in mind-set which acknowledges the problem and a concomitant allocation of resources and policy changes.

Finally, it inevitably requires leadership with a vision of a more inclusive and equitable learning environment. In addition, the terms equity and inclusion are multi-faceted and cannot be confined or easily understood by simple dictionary definitions. It is therefore important that any discussion or analysis of equity and inclusion begins with a clear and coherent definition and explanation of terms.

Defining Equity and Inclusion

The terms equity and inclusion have several layers of meaning. An understanding of equity and inclusion can be viewed from a macro view (i.e., from a political, economic, and sociocultural view) and a meso view (i.e., from an institutional view) and a micro view (i.e., from a group or individual view). Given the complexity of these terms, it is perhaps best to start from a broad view in order to better understand the educational landscape relative to equity and inclusion. Broadly defined, inclusion means the practice of including all people without subject to arbitrary or unnecessary barriers, and it is contrasted with practices that tend to exclude or otherwise privilege one segment of society over another, which may be rooted in exclusionary attitudes, practices, and traditions.

With respect to education, and higher education in particular, inclusion entails a right to access higher learning opportunities and to participate fully in the learning process. At a human rights level, UNESCO (2009) defines inclusion as:

…a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all children, youth and adults through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing and eliminating exclusion within and from education. (p. 8).

UNESCO (2017) also notes that inequities in the quality and effectiveness of educational outcomes also amount to an unequal development of education. It is this broad definition that has guided the development and analysis of this volume and this chapter.

Using this broad definition, this chapter views access to higher education as a fairness and justice and human rights issue. As such, the concept of fairness (in relation to educational access, participation, and achievement) involves both equality and equity, both of which are important for achieving inclusion. Although both principles complement each other, each concept frames the idea of fairness differently. Whereas equality is centered on the fairness principle that every person should receive uniform treatment (i.e., everyone is entitled to be treated uniformly under the law without discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, disability, age, etc.), equity is centered on just treatment within the educational process (i.e., everyone is entitled to be treated fairly as a matter of social justice). So, whereas equality is concerned with giving everyone equal opportunity to access and participate in education at all levels, equity is concerned with ensuring equitable educational participation and achievement by meeting the varied needs of all students. Thus, institutions have a social responsibility to help ensure equal opportunity and equitable outcomes for all.

At a macro level, one way to help achieve this equality of opportunity is through a highly diversified educational system that includes many different institutional types and programs (e.g., research universities, liberal arts colleges, open universities, non-profit universities, faith-based universities, private institutions, community colleges, trade/technical colleges, as well as open educational resources, continuing education programs, etc.) and that allow anyone in society to take advantage of higher learning opportunities. Thus, educational institutions not only have a legal responsibility to ensure equality of access opportunity but also have a moral and social responsibility to put in place just policies and practices that help achieve more equitable educational experiences and outcomes. Apart from the legal, social, and moral reasons for creating an equal and equitable learning environment, it is also important to universities for economic reasons (e.g., student recruitment, retention, and graduation). It stands to reason that, all else being equal, students who have their learning and social needs and interests being met are more likely (than those who don’t have their needs and interests being met) to persist and graduate.

Since all students are different, equity creates a more inclusive learning environment by allowing students to receive educational experiences (e.g., academic support, disability accommodations, social programs, financial aid, and employment assistance) that are appropriate and suitable to their needs and interests. By making the learning environment more fair and effective, institutions are better able to improve student’s well-being and achievement as well. This is especially important in democratic societies where equality, equity, diversity, and inclusion form the cornerstones of a just society. Since educational institutions operate within the larger framework of society, it is important that colleges and universities of all types adopt inclusive principles. Furthermore, in a world increasingly globalized and interconnected, it is important for colleges and universities to modernize their teaching, learning, and curricula to reflect that reality (Gutman, 2003; Smith, 2009; Stefani & Blessinger, 2017).

Defining Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

With regard to diversity and gender identities, it is important to first define three key terms: sex, gender, and sexual orientation. The terms sex, gender, and sexual orientation are interrelated but have different meanings. Another term, sexuality, is a broad umbrella term that encompasses the sum total of our sexual identity which includes sex, gender, and sexual orientation, as well as other physical, social, and psychological factors related to our sexual identity and the varied and complex ways people express themselves sexually. UNESCO (2016) provides a good list of commonly accepted definitions of these terms which are expanded upon in the following paragraphs.

Broadly speaking, the sex identity of a person is biologically defined and determined whereas the gender of a person is socially and personally defined. As such, one’s sex identity is largely based on one’s physical sex attributes at birth such as the type of genitalia and reproductive organs as well as sex chromosomes. The categories that are used to refer to one’s sex are typically male, female, or intersex. Intersex, for instance, is a category that refers to a person who is born with sexual organs that do not align with the usual descriptions of male or female. Intersex is a complex issue depending on how narrowly or broadly one defines the term intersex. There is a range of sex anatomy variations that can be included in the term intersex. As such, intersex is not only defined by visible sex anatomy variations (i.e., anatomy that varies from the usual definition of male and female) but may also include sex chromosome variations. There are many medical conditions that one could be born with that could define one as intersex. In addition, intersex anatomy may not reveal itself until puberty and some people may live with intersex anatomy their entire lives without knowing it. Thus, defining one’s sex is not altogether a clear-cut matter and may entail degrees ambiguity along the sex spectrum (Blackless et al., 2000; “What is Intersex?”, n.d.).

Gender, on the other hand, is one’s internal sense of personal identity. One’s gender identity may or may not align with one’s sex. Gender identity is one’s internal awareness of oneself as man, woman, both, or neither, whereas gender expression is how one expresses one’s gender through one’s dress, mannerisms, language, etc. The terms that are used to refer to one’s gender include man or masculine, woman or feminine, cisgender, agender, bigender, trans/transgender, and gender fluid, among others. Transgender is an umbrella term that refers to people whose gender identity does not align with their birth sex. Transgender people are individuals who are born with male or female anatomy but having feelings that don’t align with their anatomy. Trans-man, for instance, refers to an individual whose gender identity is a man but who was assigned (declared) as female at birth. A trans-woman, for instance, refers to an individual whose gender identity is a woman but who was assigned (declared) as male at birth. Transitioning is the process of accepting and adopting the social and personal identity that alig...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Chapter 1. Introduction to Contexts for Diversity and Gender Identities in Higher Education
• Chapter 2. Access and Permanence Conditions for Students with Special Educational Needs in Brazilian Higher Education
• Chapter 3. Looking on the Bright Side: Pathways, Initiative, and Programs to Widen Arab High School Graduates’ Participation in Israeli Higher Education
• Chapter 4. Perspectives on Access, Equity, and Quality in Jamaica’s Community Colleges
• Chapter 5. Disparity in Higher Education: A Case for Nepal
• Chapter 6. The Internationalization of Portuguese Higher Education Institutions – Reasons, Strategies and Challenges
• Chapter 7. English Education Policy Trends in Puerto Rico and the Implications of the Language of Instruction in Puerto Rican Universities
• Chapter 8. Access to and Widening Participation in South African Higher Education
• Chapter 9. Financial Barriers Affecting Students from Poor Families’ Accessibility to Higher Education in Tanzania
• Chapter 10. The Teaching Excellence Framework: Quality, Equality and Student Engagement in English Higher Education
• Chapter 11. Spotlight on Six Marginalized Populations in American Higher Education
• Chapter 12. Motivation behind Male Students’ Decision to Participate in a Study Program Abroad: A Study Conducted in the United States
• Chapter 13. Advancing and Retaining Underrepresented Faculty in STEM: A Program for Value-Driven Career Success
• Chapter 14. We’re not in High School Anymore: Understanding the Academic Transitional Challenges Experienced by us Men of Color in College
• About The Authors
• Name Index
• Subject Index