The Prophet Muhammad

A Role Model for Muslim Minorities

Muhammad Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi

• Publisher: The Islamic Foundation
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9780860376774
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Islamic Theology

This book seeks guidance from the Prophet Muhammad's life for Muslims living as a minority. Prominent examples include how Islam was practised in Makkah under constant prejudice, how Muslims led their lives as migrants in Abyssinia and how Muslim minorities were treated by the Islamic state of Madinah

CHAPTER 1

PLURALISTIC SOCIETY OF MAKKAH

Makkah is generally taken as the seat of a single faith, inhabited by several families of the Quraysh tribe. This is not a sound view. The Quraysh, no doubt, enjoyed a majority in Makkah. They were at the helm of its affairs and dominated its business and trade. They had a leading role in its political system and economy. They were ranked high in its social life. Yet they were not the only notable tribe in Makkah. Besides them, there were social classes, tribes and groups who enjoyed an influential position in Makkah. The latter would often take decisive steps, changing the course of events.

Even the Quraysh families professed two different sets of social values. In opposition to other Arab tribes they displayed unity at political and military levels. However, they were divided among themselves into numerous political, social, economic, religious and cultural and economic groups beset with rivalry. Their elite had mutual differences, animosity and jealousy. Their social relations, economic ties, trade links and political and cultural alliances were subject to change almost every day. These differences often caused social unrest, economic chaos, religious friction, clash of cultures and commercial and economic tussles.

In their religious life too, there were marked differences and variety. The Quraysh families were essentially the adherents of Abrahamic faith. However, their faith had been vitiated by accretions. They had incorporated many innovations in their original faith. They had deviated much from the original path. Polytheism had become the main article of their faith. Their practices too, had grown intensely polytheistic. Their affiliation with a host of idols had divided them into groups and sub-groups. There was a reform movement against the ancestral faith. Atheism had been entrenched deeply there. Some persons and groups had severed all links with faith. They were under the evil influence of the neighbouring Jews, Christians and Magians. Some had turned into Jews, others into Christians and Magians. Many were influenced in varying degrees by these faiths. By the time of the Prophet Muḥammad’s advent Makkah was a truly pluralistic and multi-faith society.

TRIBAL DIVISIONS IN MAKKAH

The Makkan Quraysh

In the tribal hierarchy and in terms of social status the Quraysh families had different rankings. Quṣayy ibn Kilāb had reorganized the town of Makkah. At the time he settled some leading Quraysh families in the vicinity of the Kaʿbah. They came to be known as ‘Quraysh al-Baṭā’iḥ’. This stratification was based on social standing, rank of the family and the distinctions it enjoyed. Even among the Quraysh al-Baṭā’iḥthere were class divisions. The more honourable among them were housed next to the Kaʿbah. The pride of place was annexed by Quṣayy ibn Kilāb, for this family was the custodian of the Kaʿbah and was held in great esteem for its political and social standing. Next to them were Banū Makhzūm, Banū Sahm, BanūʿAdiyy, Banū Taym and Banū Jumaḥetc, who were also settled around the Kaʿbah. The settlement was done on all sides of the Kaʿbah. The inner circle was occupied by the Quraysh al-Baṭā’iḥ. Those in the outer circle were regarded as less privileged ones and came to be known as Quraysh al-Ẓawāhir. They were granted land at some distance from the Kaʿbah. Among them were the less powerful families such as of Banū Lu’ayy and Banū Fihr etc.¹

The Quraysh families held important positions in Makkan political order and administrative set up in relation to their ranking in social life and their financial status. Each family thus occupied some major position while the highest office went to the most distinguished family. The head of the Banū Quṣayy family enjoyed about half of the twelve most important positions, including the provisions for water, flag, hospitality and other offices. These offices were held at a later date by their sons and successors as a hereditary privilege. Anyone outside the Quṣayy family was never granted any of these offices. However, the families belonging to the Quraysh al-Baṭā’iḥheld one or two of these positions. Some of these went to Banū Makhzūm, Banū Taym, BanūʿAdiyy and Banū Jumaḥ. The Kaʿbah possessions were in the charge of Banū Sahm. None of these positions were ever enjoyed by the Quraysh al-Ẓawāhir.²

Around the time of the Prophet Muḥammad’s advent, the twelve leading families of the Quraysh al-Baṭā’iḥdominated the political order, economy and administrative machinery of Makkah. In about two centuries the family of Banū Quṣayy had branched out into five leading families, with each of these controlling some office on hereditary basis. ʿAbd al-Dār, the eldest son of Quṣayy had three positions while the other son ʿAbd Manāf maintained his control over the other three departments. These were later transferred to the three main branches of this family i.e. Banū Hāshim, Banū Nawfal and BanūʿAbd Shams/Banū Umayyah: Although ʿAbd Manāf’s family was divided into four distinct branches they were led by a single head of the family in the encounters with others. The three offices held by BanūʿAbd al-Dār were assumed by the branches of their family while other positions were retained by successors on a hereditary basis.³

Although wealth did not play any major role in the tribal affairs and administrative acumen, its impact was not negligible either. It did have its bearing on retaining or abdicating some positions. As Banū Nawfal belonging to BanūʿAbd Manāf turned financially weak, their office of providing nursing was bought by another Quraysh family, Banū Asad, who had been earlier entitled only to join consultative meetings. The affluent tradesman Ḥakīm ibn Ḥizām of Banū Asad was able to gain the custodianship of the tribal and community assembly Dār al-Nadwah by dint of his wealth. BanūʿAbd al-Dār who earlier held this position had to forego it on account of their adverse financial status. The same happened in the case of the leaders of two Banū Hāshim families. In view of his failing financial condition the privilege of offering water to pilgrims passed on from Abū Ṭālib al-Hāshimī to his wealthy younger brother al-ʿAbbās al-Hāshimī and was retained in future by the latter. Wealth and financial condition often played a key role in determining the social status and political power of a tribe and family. The neo-rich aspired for political and social status and this often resulted in mutual hostilities, social disorder, rivalry and jealousy, family feuds, trade war and psychological tension. It often changed the course of events.⁴

Numerical strength, economic resources and social status, it goes without saying, were intertwined. These factors impelled groups and families to lay claim to privileges and rights. Often did two branches of the same family stand against each other, pressing their respective claims for position and office. According to oft-quoted reports, two sub-branches of the Banū Quṣayy family – BanūʿAbd Manāf and BanūʿAbd al-Dār turned into foes. Their rivalry could have led to the break out of war. The issue was, however, resolved amicably by dividing power and sharing office.

As the Quraysh families differed on social, community and tribal issues, they were divided into groups and sub-groups. The same social and economic forces accounted for the division of the Quraysh into the two major groups of al-Aḥlāf and al-Muṭayyabūn. It is on record that the Quraysh tribes were in two opposing camps on the issue of the division of offices among BanūʿAbd Manāf and BanūʿAbd al-Dār. Al-Muṭayyabūn sided with BanūʿAbd Manāf. Among them were Banū Taym, Banū Zuhrah, Banū Asad, Banūal-Ḥārith ibn Fihr. As opposed to it, among al-Aḥlāf were BanūʿAbd al-Dār and their supporters such as Banū Makhzūm, Banū Jumaḥ, Banū Sahm and BanūʿAdiyy ibn Kaʿb. Then there was another camp of ʿĀmīr ibn Lu’ayy and Muḥārib ibn Fihr, which was not allied with either of the two and acted neutrally all along.⁵

The agreement known as ḥilf al-Fuḍūl, which was contracted for defending the interests of weaker sections and foreigners too, had divided Quraysh families into two main camps. Those who stood for this agreement comprised Banū Hāshim, Banū Muṭṭalib, Banū Taym, Banū Zuhrah and Banū Asad. Even the united family of BanūʿAbd Manāf was divided on this issue. Among those who kept away from this agreement were Banū Umayyah, Banū Nawfal, Banū Makhzūm, Banū Jumaḥand Banū Sahm etc. While Banū Hāshim and Banū Muṭṭalib supported the agreement, Banū Nawfal and Banū Umayyah kept aloof from it. Several social, economic and political considerations were at work behind these divisions. This had dealt a severe blow to the ideal of a unified family and united tribe. The same was re-echoed later when Banū Hāshim and Banū Muṭṭalib reacted differently to the social boycott of Muslims. They helped and defended Muslims whereas the two other families of BanūʿAbd Manāf – Banū Umayyah and Banū Nawfal did support the Quraysh.⁶ The Qurayshī stance was dictated by their political and economic interests. In contrast, Banū Hāshim and Banū Muṭṭalib abided by the tribal tradition of protecting their own folk. As a consequence, the leading united family of BanūʿAbd Manāf was divided.

Other social, economic and political factors too, had sown discord among the Quraysh, dividing them into numerous units at war with one another. These differences existed among families as well. For example, Banū Makhzūm thought of themselves as superior to everyone, especially to BanūʿAbd Manāf. It caused constant friction among the two. BanūʿAdiyy was Banū Zuhrah’s foe. They were hostile to Banū Taym as well. Many families had strained relations. Often did it surface at the level of the leading families. An instance in point is the serious rift between Banū Hāshim and Banū Umayyah, though they were part of the larger family of BanūʿAbd Manāf. Essentially it was a clash of interests, without any root in family feuds. Such differences and hostilities were common among the Quraysh.

At the level of individuals too, the issues of property, wealth, politics, business and trade and social relations created tension in tribes. At times, members of the same family with strong blood ties clashed with one another, prompted by their self interest. For example, the chief of BanūʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib al-Hāshimī was hostile to Ḥarb ibn Umayyah, the leader of Banū Umayyah. The former had differences with members of other families. The hostility between Hāshim and Umayyah signified the rift between the uncle and the nephew who were impelled by their economic or social interests.

Apart from the Quraysh, some other Arab tribes were also settled in Makkah. Their details follow in this work. Some leading members of the Quraysh had serious differences with chiefs of the non-Quraysh Arab tribes. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib al-Hāshimi differed sharply with several Quraysh and non-Quraysh leaders. This animosity did not rest on any tribal consideration. Rather, he was guided by his economic interests. Muḥammad Ibn Ḥabīb al-Baghdādī has reported at length such hostilities.⁷ The Makhzūm chief al-Fakīh ibn Mughīrah developed differences with the chief of BanūʿAbd Shams, ʿUtbah ibn Rabīʿah. Such hostilities were natural in a multi-tribal and pluralistic polity such as of Makkah. It must be said to the credit of the forbearing Quraysh that they did not let these conflicts flare up into open war and bloodshed. It did not turn them into enemies forever either.⁸

Other Arab Tribes of Makkah

The Quraysh did not always constitute a majority in Makkah. Nor did they ever hold its leadership. In ancient days Banū Jurhum held this position and enjoyed the custodianship of the Kaʿbah. For they were the kin of Prophet Ishmael (peace be upon him) the founder of both Makkah and the Kaʿbah. Banū Khuzāʿah snatched this position from Banū Jurhum: At a later date, it was annexed by the Quraysh chief, Quṣayy ibn Kilāb. In the intervening period some other Arab tribes had their ascendancy. They were however, trounced by some other Arab tribes. Often did the losing tribe leave Makkah. In some cases, however, some of their families managed to settle down in the vicinity of Makkah.⁹

Both Makkan tribes and their opponents secured military and political help from other tribes and with the latter’s active support they managed to drive away the enemy. For expelling Banū Khuzāʿah, Quṣayy ibn Kilāb had drawn upon the military strength of Banū Kinānah. Likewise, for putting an end to the interference of the Arab tribe Ṣaufah in the affairs of Makkah, they had sought help from Banū Kinānah and their ancestor Quḍāʿah.¹⁰

Hāshim ibn ʿAbd Manāf and his illustrious son ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib of the Quraysh had taken military and financial support from these tribes – Saʿd, Hudhaym and ʿAzrā. This alone had helped them entrench deep into Makkan polity. Muḥammad ibn Ḥabīb al-Baghdādī has recounted at length the agreements carried out by several tribes, families and individuals related to Muṭayyabūn, Aḥlāf, ʿAdiyy, Banū Sahm, Khuzāʿah and other contracts.¹¹

There are bits of evidence indicating that at times help was taken from other tribes and foreign rulers. This help was secured for expelling non-local groups from Makkah and for establishing their political power locally. Sources speak of the help taken from the Lakhmī ruler of Iraq, King Mundhir, Yemenī King Zuwayzan and other heads of state by Makkan chiefs.

Besides such help from without, some Arab Bedouin tribes had settled permanently in Makkah. Such non-local elements turned to Makkah in view of the adverse circumstances faced by them. On reaching Makkah they entered into alliance with a Quraysh family which enabled them to settle down in Makkah. Then they formed marital kinship with the same family or its allies. It cemented their position. In the Arab tribal norms both of these relationships were very strong. It was obligatory on a tribe to render help to its son-in-law. It was regarded as sacred as the blood tie. Many Arab tribes moved to Makkah for economic reasons, for being the trade centre it offered them many opportunities and improved their financial conditions. It was common place that these tribes gained wealth and social status in Makkah, which helped them secure political power as well.

A branch of some influential Arab tribe of Makkah was settled there, with some small families living there. They had alliance with some Quraysh family or individual and were reckoned members of their sponsors. The list of the senior most Makkan Muslims, as provided by Ibn Hishām and other classical writers of sīrah, includes the names of these allies. Among the allies of Banū Umayyah were Banū Ghanam, Banū Dudan, and around forty members of Asad Khuzaymah. Men, women and children were part of it. A small group of Banū Ghanī was Banū Hishām’s ally. The former had close ties with the latter. Among the allies of Banū Zuhrah were influential members of Banū Hudhayl, Kindah and Tamīm tribes. Prominent among them were ʿAbdullāh ibn Masʿūd al-Hudhalī, al-Miqdād ibn ʿAmr al-Kindī, Sh...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Transliteration Table
• Preface
• 1. Pluralistic Society of Makkah
• 2. Evolution of the Muslim Minority in Makkah
• 3. The Muslim Community of Abyssinia
• 4. Formation of the Muslim Ummah in the Makkan Period
• 5. The Defence System and the Right to Defend
• 6. Defence Agreement
• 7. Muslim Minorities After the Formation of the Islamic State
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Notes