The Muslim Heritage of Bengal

The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal

Muhammad Mojlum Khan

• Publisher: Kube Publishing Ltd
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781847740625
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Indian & South Asian History
• Index: History

" The Muslim Heritage of Bengal is a multidimensional work.... I am sure this book will add to the vista of knowledge in the field of Muslim history and heritage of Bengal. I recommend this work."—A. K. M. Yaqub Ali, PhD, professor emeritus, Islamic history and culture, University of Rajshahi

"Khan's book provides invaluable information which will inspire present and future generations."—M. Abdul Jabbar Beg, PhD, former professor of Islamic history and civilization, National University of Malaysia

A popular history that covers eight hundred years of the history of Islam in Bengal through the example of forty-two inspirational men and women up until the twentieth century. Written by the author of the best-selling The Muslim 100.

Included are the prominent figures Shah Jalal, Nawab Abdul Latif, Rt. Hon. Syed Ameer Ali, Sir Salimullah Khan Bahadur, and Begum Rokeya.

Muhammad Mojlum Khan was born in 1973 in Habiganj, Bangladesh, and was educated in England. He is a teacher, author, literary critic, and research scholar, and has published more than 150 essays and articles worldwide. He is the author of The Muslim 100 (2008). He is a fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and director of the Bengal Muslim Research Institute, United Kindgom. He lives in England with his family.

D. 1206

MUHAMMAD BAKHTIYAR KHALJI

HISTORIANS OFTEN TRACE initial Muslim contact with Bengal to the seventh century, when the early Arab and Persian traders and seafarers came to the remote coastal regions of India in pursuit of business and commerce. The presence of early Muslim traders in Bengal has been confirmed by the discovery of coins issued by the Abbasid Caliphs at sites in Paharpur in Rajshahi and Mainamati in Comilla. Indeed, the early Arab and Persian traders paved the way for the Sufis and other Muslim preachers to proceed to Bengal in order to convey the message of Islam to its non-Muslim inhabitants: the majority of whom were Hindus and Buddhists at the time.

Some early Muslim preachers included Baba Adam Shahid of Dhaka, Shah Sultan Rumi of Mymensingh and Makhdum Shah Dawlah Shahid of Pabna. These pioneering preachers not only played a pivotal role in disseminating Islam in Bengal, they also prepared the way for political Islam to make inroads into that part of the subcontinent. Although political Islam first entered the subcontinent in the year 711 under the leadership of the young and inspirational Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqifi, it was left to the genius of Sultan Mahmud, the great Turkish Ghaznavid ruler, to make serious inroads into India during the beginning of the eleventh century. His repeated excursions into mainland India not only opened the floodgates for Islam in the subcontinent, they also paved the way for Mu‘izz al-Din Muhammad Ghuri to instigate his conquests in northern India; which, in turn, enabled Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji to march into Bengal virtually unopposed.

Ikhtiyar al-Din Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji (known as Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji) was born in Garamsir (located in modern-day Dasht-i-Marg) in Central Afghanistan, into the tribe of Khalaj in Khaljistan. Although the Khalaj tribe was of Turkish origin, it consisted of people of various ethnic groups. They initially settled in eastern Afghanistan, before being recruited into the Ghurid military and civil services.¹ Although little is known about his early life, according to some historians, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji was born into an ordinary family of the Khalaj tribe and, not unlike his fellow tribesmen, he was known to have been a brave and ambitious young man. Despite being short in height and of slim build, with unusually long arms, he nonetheless aspired to become a soldier. According to Minhaj al-Din Siraj (also known as Minhaj-i-Siraj), author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (The Chronicle of Nasir), Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji initially worked for the Ghurids until he was dismissed from his job for repeatedly turning up to work late.² However, according to another account, he proceeded to Ghazni in order to join the army of Muhammad Ghuri, but was not recruited due to his short height and long arms. Distraught but undeterred, he then travelled all the way to Delhi to serve Qutb al-Din Aybak (who served as a commander of Muhammad Ghuri, then became a ruler in Lahore after the latter’s death in 602). Again he was unable to secure permanent employment, probably because he did not have a horse or any armour.

Determined to prove his skills and talent, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji then proceeded to Badayun in Northern India where, at last, he was able to join the service of Malik Hizbar al-Din as a low-ranking army commander. Since the salary he received was very poor and there were no prospects of promotion, he subsequently quit this job, moved further towards the east and settled at Oudh. As luck would have it, Malik Husam al-Din, the governor of this province, was impressed with Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji and offered him a sizable plot of land in Mirzapur District (located in the present-day Indian state of Uttar Pradesh). Accordingly, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji settled there and began to consolidate his political position in and around that area. Having worked as a soldier and military strategist, it did not take him long to out-manoeuvre his opponents and thereby become the undisputed master of the neighbouring territories.

Hoping to extend his dominion further, sometime between 1203 and 1205 he marched towards the east and annexed the province of Bihar (which was then known as Magadha) and added this territory to his expanding state. It should be mentioned here that Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji marched towards Bihar with no more than 200 soldiers, yet he managed to capture one of its most heavily fortified forts, Udantapuri with ease. Although it is true that the locals put up resistance against the Muslim general and his army (and, as a result, many people died on the battlefield), it is factually inaccurate to suggest that he destroyed many ancient seats of learning at Nalanda and Vikramshila before instigating a wholesale massacre of innocent people upon entering the fort. In fact, according to majority of the historians, the opposite is true: Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji was far from being a cruel, ruthless and bloodthirsty military general. Nevertheless, the importance of this victory should not be underestimated, not least because this fort had in the past successfully resisted many attacks on it from Vallala Sena, the powerful Hindu ruler of Bengal. As expected, the capture of Bihar greatly enhanced the Muslim general’s standing and this, no doubt, prompted the Viceroy Qutb al-Din Aybak to publicly recognise and honour him for his success and achievements, thus encouraging him to continue his military conquests.

The annexation of Bihar opened the way for Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji and his cavalry to move into Lakhnawati (Bengal) and to capture this large province. However, before launching an excursion into Bengal, he first consolidated his grip on Bihar and its neighbouring territories. He did so by creating several garrisons (thanas) throughout his expanding state. The creation of military outposts not only enabled the Muslim general to strengthen his hold on those areas, but also enabled him to swiftly establish his political authority across those territories. This shows that Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji was more than a successful conqueror; he was also a brilliant political strategist and organiser. With Bihar and its neighbouring territories firmly under his sway, the Muslim general prepared for his next important move: the conquest of Bengal. Bengal at the time was under the rule of the members of the Sena dynasty, who hailed from the south of India (that is, from the region that today consists of Andhra Pradesh, Mysore and Karnataka). The mother tongue of the Sena ruler was Kanarese. Although historians do not know exactly when the Senas moved to Bengal and acquired power there, according to one account, they came to Bengal to serve in the military service of the Pala dynasty: when this dynasty began to decline irreversibly the Sena generals assumed power and inaugurated their rule.

However, according to other historians, the Senas came to Bengal with an army from the Deccan, and they acquired power in this region by ousting the Palas. Since historians have provided conflicting accounts about the arrival of the Senas to Bengal, it is not surprising that very little is known about Samantasena, the founder of the Sena dynasty, who most probably lived during the middle of the eleventh century. His descendants (such as Hemantasena and Vijaysena), however, went onto establish their rule across Bengal by ousting their rivals. After a long reign, Vijaysena was succeeded by his son, Vallalasena, who was a prominent scholar and writer, and—like his father—a devotee of the Hindu god Shiva. Prior to the arrival of the Senas, the dominant religion of Bengal was Buddhism; but after assuming power they ruthlessly suppressed the Buddhists and instead forcibly imposed their rigid version of Brahmanic Hinduism on the locals. This creed required strict adherence to the caste system and the practice of kulinism (a form of racial and cultural superiority).

By the time Laksmanasena became the ruler of the Sena dynasty, he was considered to be rather old and weak, and this probably contributed to the political disruption and decline that occured towards the end of his reign. As the Sena dynasty became politically weak and disunited, various independent rulers emerged across Bengal, and this led to the irreversible fragmentation and disintegration of the Sena dynasty. Sensing the Sena’s vulnerability, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji advanced in the direction of Bengal and thereby established Muslim rule for the first time in the history of Bengal. Indeed, as soon as the Muslim general marched into Bihar and established his rule there, the Sena ruler knew he was in trouble: not least because he was very unpopular at home and his political rivals were busy plotting his downfall. Caught between a rock and a hard place, Laksmanasena was not in a position to repel the Muslim general once the latter had decided to march into Bengal.

As expected, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji proceeded as far as the gates of the Hindu ruler’s palace virtually unopposed. Although historians have continued to debate the exact details of the route taken by the Muslim general and his army, they agree that he planned and executed his military excursion with much precision and effectiveness. Minhaj al-Siraj, the earliest and most reliable historical source, states that Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji marched into Nadia (the capital of the Sena dynasty) at great speed, with only 18 horsemen able to keep pace with him.³ Seeing the Muslim general march into his capital virtually unopposed, the Sena ruler attempted to escape from his palace through the back door in order to seek refuge (this refuge was in a location nearby modern Dhaka). Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji did not pursue him; he allowed the Sena ruler to escape with his family and close aides. The arrival of the Muslim general in Bengal in around 1204 represented the end of the Sena dynasty. In so doing, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji inaugurated Muslim rule in Bengal for the first time.

According to Muhammad Yusuf Siddiq, an underlying reason for this victory was the Senas failure to gain support from the ordinary people, both Hindus and Buddhists, who had not supported them fully from the outset. Since Bengal was ruled by a prominent native Buddhist Pala dynasty for many centuries, the Hindu Senas, who were Brahman Kshatriya (one of the highest Hindu castes), had failed to connect with the masses. Their hold on Bengal was also weakened by their strict adherence to the caste system, which led to social segregation. In addition to this, the Senas did not speak Bengali; thus culturally, linguistically and spiritually they were alienated from the ordinary people. For this reason, the Vedic religion of the Aryans had never captured the imagination of the locals. This probably prompted, according to Muhammad Yusuf Siddiq:

[The] indigenous Mlechcha (a Sanskrit term essentially connoting non-Aryan natives/uncivilized non-Hindu aborigines of India) population (such as the Mech tribe in the north, according to Tabaqat-i-Nasiri) to cooperate with the Muslim conquerors identified by the Aryan (Vedic) Hindus as Yavana (originally Sanskrit word meaning polluted outsiders/aliens).⁴

Unlike the Senas, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji quickly won over the non-Aryan people of the region; to such an extent that he even sponsored the construction of a monastery for the Buddhists. His open and welcoming approach enabled the indigenous people to interact with the Muslim newcomers from Arabia, Turkistan, Afghanistan and Persia during the early days of Muslim rule, and this fostered a culture of respect and mutual understanding in Bengal.

Unfortunately, the chronicler Minhaj al-Din Siraj did not provide any date for the conquest; as expected, historians have suggested various dates, although the majority of historians are of the view that Bengal was conquered in the year 1204. By all standards, the Muslim conquest of Bengal was a remarkable military feat, as it was achieved without any collateral damage. This has prompted many modern Hindu nationalists and historians to play down the significance of this epoch-making event. Perhaps the idea of a heroic Muslim conqueror and military general marching into the bastion of Brahmanic Hinduism, while its supposed patron and defender chose to flee for his life through the back door of his palace, is too disconcerting and humiliating for these nationalists to accept. Be that as it may, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji’s conquest of Bengal was remarkable. The majority of researchers and historians—Muslims and non-Muslims alike—have recognised this to be the case.

After the conquest of Nadia, the Muslim general stayed there in order to establish as many military outposts (thanas) as were necessary to enable him to administer the area properly before proceeding to Gaud (Lakhnawati), which was his political capital. Within a very short period Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji had carved out a huge dominion, and he did so without causing unnecessary damage and destruction. From his original base in Mirzapur in Oudh (located in southern Bihar), his dominion extended all the way to Rajmahal, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Dinajpur and Bogra in the north; and from the borders of the Kingdom of Kamrup in the east to as far as Jessore in the south. The considerable size of his dominion prompted him to devise and implement effective political administration throughout his territories. He did this by dividing his realm into different regions and districts. He then sent governors to those areas, who reported directly to him at his headquarters in Gaud. Three of his chief governors were: Muhammad Shiran Khalji, who was put in charge of Lakhnur (Birbhum); Husam al-Din Iwad Khalji, who took charge of Tirhut, Oudh and the surrounding areas; and Ali Mardan Khalji, who was dispatched to an area close to modern Rangpur. With these governers Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji established a sound political administration.

After creating an inclusive and effective political and administrative structure, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji helped to undermine the socially and morally reprehensible Brahmanically-inspired caste system. In so doing, he liberated the masses from the bondage of decades—if not centuries—of slavery and destitution. As expected, his kindness and benevolence won the locals (mostly Hindus and Buddhists) over to Islam. As the Muslim population gradually increased, he instigated a programme that included building mosques, madrasahs and khanqahs to meet his people’s social, cultural, religious and educational needs. In this sense, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji was more than a great military general and conqueror: he was also a liberal and humane ruler and administrator. Unsurprisingly, he became a pioneer of Islamic thought, culture and civ...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Dedication
• Copyright
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1. Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji
• 2. Shah Jalal of Sylhet
• 3. Khan Jahan Ali
• 4. Syed Sultan
• 5. Syed Alaol
• 6. Hayat Mahmud
• 7. Mannujan Khanum
• 8. Haji Muhammad Muhsin
• 9. Rahimunnesa
• 10. Haji Shari‘atullah
• 11. Titu Mir
• 12. Mawlana Karamat Ali Jaunpuri
• 13. Sir Abdul Ghani
• 14. Nawab Abdul Latif
• 15. Abdur Ra’uf Wahid
• 16. Abdul Ghafur Nassakh
• 17. Mawlana Ubaydullah Suhrawardi
• 18. Faizunnesa Choudhurani
• 19. Dilwar Husayn Ahmad
• 20. Sir Ahsanullah
• 21. Pir Abu Bakr Siddiqi of Furfura
• 22. Mir Musharraf Husayn
• 23. Rt. Hon. Syed Ameer Ali
• 24. Rt. Hon. Taslimuddin Ahmad
• 25. Muhammad Daad Ali
• 26. Kazim al-Qurayshi Kaykobad
• 27. Shaykh Abdur Rahim of Basirhat
• 28. Muzammil Haq of Shantipur
• 29. Munshi Muhammad Meherullah
• 30. Maulvi Abdul Karim of Sylhet
• 31. Sir Syed Shamsul Huda
• 32. Nawab Syed Nawab Ali Chowdhury
• 33. Mawlana Abdul Awwal Jaunpuri
• 34. Sir Abdur Rahim
• 35. Mawlana Muhammad Akram Khan
• 36. Abdul Karim Sahityavisharad
• 37. Munshi Shaykh Zamiruddin
• 38. Sir Salimullah Khan Bahadur
• 39. Wajid Ali Khan Panni
• 40. Mawlana Abu Nasr Wahid
• 41. Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah
• 42. Begum Rokeya
• Conclusion
• Brief Chronology of the Islamic History of Bengal
• List of Further Reading
• Select Bibliography
• Index