References
Introduction
1 C.-J.-F. Lecarpentier, Essais de paysage . . . (Rouen, 1817), p. 36, my translation.
2 See especially the studies published on Courbetâs landscapes and Barbizon painting, in Andreas Burmester, Christoph Heilmann and Michael F. Zimmermann, Barbizon: Malerei der Natur â Natur der Malerei (Munich, 1999); on Impressionist paintings in David Bomford et al., Art in the Making: Impressionism, exh. cat., National Gallery, London (London, 1990); Iris Schaefer, Caroline von Saint-George and Katja Lewerentz, Painting Light: The Hidden Techniques of the Impressionists (Milan, 2008), and Iris Schaefer, Caroline von Saint-George and Katja Lewerentz, eds, âInternational Symposium at the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum & Fondation Corboud, Cologne: Latest Research into Painting Techniques of Impressionists and Postimpressionistsâ, in Zeitschrift fĂŒr Kunsttechnologie und Konservierung, 22/2 (Munich, 2009); on Neo-Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: John Leighton and Richard Thomson, Seurat and The Bathers, exh. cat., National Gallery, London (1997), Robert Herbert, Seurat and the Making of âLa Grande Jatteâ, exh. cat., Art Institute of Chicago (2004), John House, Elizabeth Reissner and Barnaby Wright, The Courtauld CĂ©zannes (London, 2008), Marije Vellekoop, Muriel Geldof, Ella Hendriks, Leo Jansen and Alberto de Tagle, Van Goghâs Studio Practice (Amsterdam, 2013). There are numerous individual articles and essays cited elsewhere in this book.
3 See Marie ThĂ©rĂšse de Forgesâ early studies Les Auto-portraits de Courbet (Paris, 1973), and on Courbetâs The Studio, in Gustave Courbet (Paris, 1977â8).
4 See Anthea Callen, The Art of Impressionism: Painting Technique and the Making of Modernity (London and New Haven, CT, 2000). James Rubin has recently addressed related issues in his important Impressionism and the Modern Landscape: Productivity, Technology, and Urbanization from Manet to Van Gogh (Los Angeles, CA, and London, 2008).
5 For the formation of the SociĂ©tĂ© and the genesis of the first Impressionist exhibition, see Paul Tucker, âThe First Impressionist Exhibition in Contextâ, in Charles S. Moffett, ed., The New Painting: Impressionism, 1874â1886, exh. cat., National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, and Fine Art Museums, San Francisco (Washington, DC, 1986), pp. 92â117.
6 Roszika Parker and Griselda Pollock, The Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology (New York and London, 1981), pp. 38 and 39.
7 See SĂ©verine Sofio, ââLâart ne sâapprend pas aux dĂ©pens des mĆurs!â. Construction du champ de lâart, genre et professionnalisation des artistes, 1789â1848â, thesis, Paris (2009), pp. 671â2ff and pp. 1â2: she notes, for example, that one in four painters exhibiting at the Salon during the July Monarchy were women. See also A. Corbin, J. Lalouette and M. Riot-Sarcey, Femmes dans la CitĂ©, 1815â1871 (Paris, 2002), and Bonnie Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class: The Bourgeoises of Northern France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1981), and S. Schweitzer, Les Femmes ont toujours travaillĂ©: Une histoire du travaille des femmes aux XIXe et XXe siĂšcles (Paris, 2002).
8 See Griselda Pollockâs important early intervention, âModernity and the Spaces of Femininityâ, in Vision and Difference: Femininity, Feminism and the Histories of Art (London and New York, 1988), chap. 3; and Nochlinâs key essay on Morisot and work, including Hanging the Laundry (illus. 177), in Ingrid Pfeiffer, Linda Nochlin, Sylvie Patry and Griselda Pollock, Women Impressionists: Berthe Morisot, Mary Cassatt, Eva GonzalĂšs, Marie Bracquemond, exh. cat., Schirn Kunsthalle, Frankfurt; Fine Arts Museums, San Francisco (2008), pp. 46â54 (first published in Nochlinâs Women, Art and Power and Other Essays, New York, 1988, pp. 37â56).
9 Linda Whiteley, âArt et commerce dâart en France avant lâepoque impressionisteâ, Romantisme, XIII/40 (1983), p. 66.
10 On the association of colour/matter and the feminine in relation to landscape painting, see Anthea Callen, âTechnique and Gender: Landscape, Ideology and the Art of Monet in the 1890sâ, and see also Paul Smithâs âCĂ©zanneâs Maternal Landscape and Its Genderâ, both in Steven Adams and Anna Greutzner Robins, eds, Gendering Landscape Art (Manchester, 2000); in Adamsâs essay in this volume, âSigns of Recovery: Landscape Painting and Masculinity in Nineteenth-century Franceâ, he argues cogently for the formation of an âinnocentâ man-child category of masculinity as the trope of the landscape artist and the success of landscape painting as an âapoliticalâ genre especially post-1848. See also Steven Adams, ââThe Fault of being purely Frenchâ: The Practice and Theory of Landscape Painting in Post-Revolutionary Franceâ, Art History, XXXVI/4 (September 2013), pp. 740â67.
11 See Pollock, Vision and Difference, chap. 3, S. Hollis Clayson, Painted Love: Prostitution in French Art of the Impressionist Era (Los Angeles, CA, 1991), and Anthea Callen, The Spectacular Body: Science, Method and Meaning in the Work of Degas (London and New Haven, CT, 1995), esp. chap. 1.
12 Anne Higonnet, Berthe Morisotâs Images of Women (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1992), p. 9.
13 Her overbearing and envious husband FĂ©lix Bracquemond is considered the reason for this. See Jean-Paul Bouillon and Elizabeth Kane, âMarie Bracquemondâ, Womanâs Art Journal, V/2 (Autumn 1984âWinter 1985), pp. 21â7.
14 For an analysis of the comparable situation in Britain, see Anthea Callen, âSexual Division of Labor in the Arts and Crafts Movementâ, Womanâs Art Journal, 5/2 (Autumn 1984âWinter 1985), pp. 1â6.
15 See Higonnet on this in Berthe Morisotâs Images of Women, pp. 2â3.
16 See Paul Duro, âThe âDemoiselles Ă Copierâ in the Second Empireâ, Womanâs Art Journal, VII/1 (SpringâSummer 1986), pp. 1â7.
17 See Jean Renoir, Renoir (Paris, 1962), p. 388.
18 In the Diderot and dâAlembert EncyclopĂ©die, pl. 6, under âPeintureâ, see chap. 1 below; see also in P.-L. Bouvier, Manuel des jeunes artistes et amateurs en peinture (Paris, 1827), pl. 1; J. Adeline, Lexique des termes dâart (Paris, 1889), under âMolleteâ, gives the information on enamel colours and illustrates both types of grinding equipment, pp. 290â91.
19 Natura Naturans, or ânatural natureâ, was used by Nicholas Green to denote âthe social production of the countrysideâ, the terms for which he identifies as being set by âthe material and cultural fabric of the metropolisâ, in Green, The Spectacle of Nature: Landscape and Bourgeois Culture in Nineteenth-century France (Manchester, 1990), p. 11, and passim, especially his pt 2, âNatura Naturans: the Formation of an Urban Visionâ, pp. 67ff.
20 See, for example, Charlotte Klonk, Science and the Perception of Nature: British Landscape Art in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (New Haven, CT, and London, 1996).
21 See Stephen Oetterman, The Panorama: History of a Mass Medium (New York, 1997), pp. 6â7. Daguerreâs diorama consisted of large canvas painted on both sides. When illuminated from the front, the scene would be shown in one state and by switching to illumination from behind another phase or aspect would be seen. Scenes in daylight changed to moonlight, a train travelling on a track would crash, or an earthquake would be shown in before and after pictures. See also Erikki Huhtamo, Illusions in Motion: Media Archaeology of the Moving Panorama and Related Spectacles (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2013).
22 See Green, The Spectacle of Nature, and Anne Wagner, âCourbetâs Landscapes and their Marketâ Art History, 4/4 (December 1981), pp. 410â31, and Petra ten-Doesschate Chu, The Most Arrogant Man in France: Gustave Courbet and the Nineteenth-century Media Culture (Princeton, NJ, 2007), and also StĂ©phane GuĂ©gan, ThĂ©ophile Gautier, La critique en libertĂ© (Paris, 1997).
23 See Rubin, Impressionism and the Modern Landscape (2008), for an important reappraisal of artistsâ new painting motifs of sites of urban and suburban labour.
24 See the chapter âThe Ideology of the Licked Surface: Official Artâ, in Charles Rosen and Henri Zerner, Romantici...