AMERICA WOULD NEVER have been discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492 had it not been for the thought of Arab astrologers in Baghdad in the 9th century A.D. When Columbus set sail on the great western voyage that carried him to Americaâs shores, he had biblical prophecy to inspire him, Arab astrology to guide him, and various practical aids that three continental astrologers, who were also mathematicians, had supplied: the planetary tables of Regiomontanus; a map drawn up by Paolo Toscanelli; and an ephemeris prepared by Samuel Zacuto, who later made the splendid astrolabe of iron used by Vasco da Gama in his voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. These were all of use to Columbus in his celestial calculations and his navigation of the open sea. He also used an astrolabe and quadrant to determine the altitude of stars, set his hourglass by the transits of the Sun, depended on the North Star to fix magnetic north, and judged the time of night by the constellation of the Great Bear. He overawed the natives of one island by his ability to predict a lunar eclipse, and drew with some success on astrological lore to predict the weatherâtaking his ships to shelter, for example, in the port of Santo Domingo because an aspect between Jupiter and Mercury seemed to portend a tropical storm. Yet Columbus could not proceed solely by the sky. Knowledge of celestial navigation in Europe was wanting, and so, for the most part, he relied on a magnetic compass to measure his course or direction, and on his own method of âdeadâ or deduced reckoning to estimate his position on the main.
But it was the stars that led him on. Columbus understood that the world was a globe and believed that by sailing directly west he would eventually reach the shores of Asia (or the âIndiesâ). He could not know, of course, that America intervened. But it was not the fabled wealth of the Indies that held him most in thrall. For the voyage itself was spurred on by an astrological idea. That idea was the âgreat conjunctionâ theory of history, as first set forth in the writings of the Persians, elaborated by the Arabs, and adopted by the Latin West. Columbus had encountered it in the work of the French cardinal, theologian, and astrologer Pierre dâAilly.
According to this theory, important historical events such as the rise and fall of empires, the birth of religions, and cultural transformations were marked by the âgreat planetary conjunctionsâ of Jupiter and Saturn as they revolved through their cycles in the sky. Such great conjunctions occurred once every 960 yearsâa principal source of our idea of the millenniumâas the planets completed a circuit of the zodiac, combining and recombining in the signs. In the course of that round, the two conjoinedâthat is, occupied the same degree of celestial longitudeâforty-eight times. For dâAilly, human history was explained by the unfolding impact of these conjunctions, according to their scale. Shifts between triplicities or elements (earth, air, fire, and water, by which the signs of the zodiac were grouped) were associated with dynastic change; the greater or near-millennial conjunctions were linked to epochal change as well as natural disasters such as earthquakes and overwhelming floods. In dâAillyâs view, such great conjunctions had heralded or coincided with the Great Flood, the fall of Troy, the death of Moses, the foundation of Rome, and the advent of Christ. âAll astronomers are agreed in this,â he declared, âthat there never was one of those conjunctions without some great and notable change in this world.â
DâAillyâs work had convinced Columbus that the end of the world was near, and that it would be accompanied by the conversion of all heathenkind to Christ. For that reason, he called himself Christophorus (or âChristo-ferens,â as he came to sign his name), âthe Christ-bearer,â and conceived himself the agent of Godâs work as the world approached its final days. All this he explained in a letter to his royal patrons, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He wrote of the Indies: âThese vast realms are peopled with immortal souls, for whose redemption Christ, the Son of God, has made an atoning sacrifice. It is the mission which God has assigned to me to search them out, and to carry to them the Gospel of Salvation.â He took as his text Isaiah 11:10â12ââThe Lord shallâŠrecover the remnant of his peopleâŠand gather together the dispersedâŠfrom the four corners of the earthââand his historic first voyage itself seemed emblematic of that charge.
On the morning of August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail with three small shipsâthe Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa MarĂaâfrom Palos, Spain, and steered for the Canary Islands, where he reprovisioned before striking due west. After a difficult voyage of two months with a near-mutinous crew, on October 12 he at length sighted land. At two oâclock in the morning, a gun was fired to give the signal. All three vessels then took in their sails and laid to, âwaiting impatiently for the dawn.â Upon making landfall, âthe voice of prayer and the melody of praise rose from his ships,â and his own first action was to prostrate himself upon the ground. To Columbus, his journeyâs end was heaven-sent. For their part, the natives on the small Bahamian island were not wholly mistaken, perhaps, when they cried out at dawn to their brethren, âCome see the people from the sky.â
Columbus would later say that he owed all he had achieved to the grace of God and âGod-givenâ arts of astrology, geometry, navigation, and arithmetic.
His own heavily annotated copy of dâAillyâs work, Treatise on the Image of the World, may still be seen in the Columbine Library at Seville.
ACCORDING TO AN ANCIENT TRADITION, common to both Gnostic and Syriac Christians as well as to the Persians and Jews, Adam received the doctrines and mysteries of astrology directly from the Creator, and by knowledgeably scanning the constellations in the skies foretold that the world would one day be destroyed by water, then by fire. As a memorial to those who came after him, he (or his descendants, Seth and Enoch) had this knowledge engraved upon two pillars, one of brick, the other of stone. According to Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian and near contemporary of Christ, the second pillar could still be seen in Syria in A.D. 63.
Astrology is the oldest of the occult sciences. It is also the origin of science itself. From astrology are derived astronomy, calculation of time, mathematics, medicine, botany, mineralogy, and (by way of alchemy) modern chemistry, among other disciplines. Logarithms were originally devised to simplify the calculations necessary in casting horoscopes; the ray theory of visionâthe foundation of modern opticsâdeveloped from astrological theories of the effect of stellar rays on the soul. For five thousand years, from ancient Sumeria and Babylonia to the present day, the stars have been viewed as shaping, by divine power, the course and destiny of human affairs. Indeed, according to the New Catholic Encyclopedia, the earliest symbol of deity known to usâthe cuneiform sign for âgodââwas a star (*).
Astrological terms permeate our language: conjunction, opposition, forecast, aspect, lunatic, venereal, disaster, influenceâas in influenza, since all epidemics were once ascribed to celestial effects; we speak of âmercurial,â âsaturnine,â or âjovialâ temperaments; and people thank their âlucky stars,â or consider a person âill-starredâ if his luck is bad. The Hebrew word mazzal means âsignâ or constellation; so âMazzal tovâ (the colloquial âCongratulations!â) really means, âMay you have good stars!â The term fall is astrological, for the fall or autumn equinox marks the descendant of the zodiac year; and revolution is taken from an astrological calculation called a âsolar return.â The star-shaped halo that once encompassed the Roman emperorâs posthumous imageâaccording to the belief that he ascended to heaven as a starâwas later transformed into the halo of the Christian saint. The pharmaceutical symbol Rxâcommonly said to be an abbreviation for the Latin verb recipere (from which we get recipe or compound)âis derived from the ancient symbol for the Roman god Jupiter, based on the âEyeâ of Horus, an Egyptian god with magical healing powers.
ASTRONOMY STUDIES THE heavenly bodies in order to formulate the natural laws that govern them and to understand how the physical structure of the universe evolved; astrology describes the influence of those bodies upon human character and life. Or, as Ralph Waldo Emerson reputedly remarked, âAstrology is astronomy brought down to earth and applied to the affairs of men.â It is an applied science, insofar as it is based on astronomy; an exact science, insofar as its judgments are based on mathematical calculations; and an empirical science, insofar as its deductions are based on data gathered over the course of time.
Its method is a horoscope, which is a map or diagram of the heavens cast for a particular moment of time, and read according to well-established rules. Those rules, if properly applied, are free from the elements of chance or divination; moreover, they are substantially based on a written tradition that derives its authority not just from dogma and belief, but from thousands of years of observation. The idea at the heart of astrology is that the pattern of a personâs lifeâor character, or natureâcorresponds to the planetary pattern at the moment of his birth. Such an idea is as old as the world is oldâthat all things bear the imprint of the moment they are born.
Whether this is true or not may be subject to debate. But the belief that it is has proved to have enduring power.
Astrology in modern times has undergone a remarkable resurgence, and is now (as Carl Jung predicted it would) knocking again at the doors of academe. Astrologers are attempting to verify traditional doctrine by scientific methods and in general to meet the demand of Johannes Kepler (one of its true believers) that they âseparate the gems from the slag.â In a number of countries, including England, France, Russia, Germany, and the United States, astrology is once again being taught at the university level, for the first time since the Renaissance. In England, courses in the subject are now offered at Brasenose College, Oxford; Bath Spa University College; the University of Southampton; and the University of Kent. It can also be studied at Cardiff University in Wales, the Bibliotheca Astrologica in France, the University of Zaragoza in Spain, Dogus University in Turkey, Benares Hindu University in northern India, and at Kepler College in the United States, among other schools. Scholarly journals such as Culture and Cosmos (A Journal of the History of Astrology and Cultural Astronomy), the Dublin Astrologer (The Journal of the Dublin Astrological Centre), and Apollon (The Journal of Psychological Astrology), have begun to establish themselves, while the prestigious Warburg Institute in London recently created a âSophia Fellowshipâ for astrological research.
For the past thirty years or so, polls have shown that from 30 to 40 percent of Americans (or about 100 million people) âbelieve in astrology and think their lives are governed by the stars.â An estimated ten million people have paid an astrologer to cast their horoscope, while almost everybody seems to know their own âsign.â Astrology columns are carried by most of the nationâs daily newspapers and hundreds of magazines, and can be found on numerous Internet sites. Yahoo alone lists about 1,700 of the latter, while Amazon.com counts 3,155 books on the subject in print. Most large bookstores today devote an entire section to the field. According to one recent estimate, there are some 15,000 full-time and 225,000 part-time astrologers today in the United States.
There can be no doubt that the subject maintains an unshakeable hold on the human mind.
THE BIBLE IS RICH with astrological allusion. It opens with the pronouncement that the âlights in the firmament of the heavensâ were established in part âfor signs,â and in Psalm 19, for example, we read: âThe heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament showeth his handiwork. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge. There is no speech nor language where their voice is not heard.â According to rabbinical tradition each of the twelve tribes of Israel represented a zodiac sign, and the astrological symbols for the four fixed signsâa lion, a man, a bull, and an eagleâwere carried as totems in the Egyptian desert by the Hebrew host. These same symbols made up the composite creature we call the Egyptian Sphinx, and in accordance with Ezekielâs vision came to stand for the four great Christian evangelistsâMatthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Of the twelve precious stones that adorned the breastplate of Aaron as high priest, Josephus wrote, âwhether we understand by them the months, or the like number of the signs of that circle which the Greeks call the Zodiac, we shall not be mistaken.â The seven-branched candlestick, he tells us, also symbolized the seven planets, and the twelve loaves of shewbread in the temple the twelve signs. It is said that each of the twelve disciples of Christ likewise stood for (or embodied) a signâan idea that was carried over into medieval romance, where the twelve knights of King Arthurâs Round Table (a symbol of the zodiac) also stood for the twelve astrological types. The idea that those types together constitute a complete circle of humanity is also carried over into our jury system, which is supposed to ensure that a man is properly tried by a representative assessment (or complete cross-section) of his peers. That means, in theory, that they will combine their experience to perfect the judgment of a case. The Hindus also say twelve is the number of completeness, which is why the Bible tells us that at the age of twelve, Jesus was able to confute the doctors in the temple, because his knowledge was already complete.
Throughout antiquity, the constellations and planets were honored by shrines and temples of learning. There were twelve great Mystery religions, âeach one paying homage to or deriving its authority from a zodiac sign.â The rites of Aries, or the Celestial Ram, so Manly Hall tells us, âwere celebrated in the temple of Jupiter Ammon in the Libyan desert; the rites of Taurus in the Egyptian Mysteries of Serapis, or the tomb of the Heavenly Bull; the rites of Gemini in Samothrace, where Castor and Polluxâthe Dioscuriâwere worshipped; the rites of Cancer in Ephesus, where Diana (goddess of the Moon) was revered; the rites of Leo in the Bacchic and Dionysiac orgies of the Greeks,â and so on.
The ecclesiastical calendars of all known religions are also linked astrologically with the major phases of the Sun and Moon. Passover, for example, begins on the first full Moon after the vernal equinox; Easter Sunday, which marks the end of Lent, is usually the first Sunday after that;* the Christian Sabbath is the day of the Sun; and the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashanah, starts at sunset on the day of the new moon closest to the autumn equinox. The first day of Ramadan is set by the new Moon in Libra, which begins the most holy period for Moslems of fasting and prayer. In Vietnam, the New Year begins at the time of the first full Moon after the Sun enters Aquarius and is termed Tet. Hanukkah is set by the new Moon in Capricorn, and Purim by the full Moon in Pisces. Christmas was âcoopted by the Church from pagan celebrations at the winter solstice, which was also the festival of the Persian Sun god Mithras. The rebirth of the Sun god was thus replaced in Christianity by the birth of God the Son.â
The names of the days of the Western week, of course, are those of the star-gods, as derived from Roman and Norse mythology. Sunday is the Sunâs day; Monday the Moonâs; Tuesday the day of Tiw, the pagan god of war, akin to Mars; Wednesday belongs to Woden, akin to Mercury (in French, Mercredi); Thursday to Thor, or Jupiter; and Friday to the goddess Freya, or Venus (in French, Vendredi). Saturday is Saturnâs day and rounds out the cycle.
Our seven-day week itself derives from a convergence around the 2nd century B.C. of the Sabbath cycle of the Jews, in which the seventh day was held to be holy, and an astrological week based upon the planets (which included the Sun and Moon) according to which each day was ruled by one of the seven planetary gods. Each hour of each day was also so ruled, hence the cycle of planetary hours. Following Egyptian practice, there were twenty-four hours in a day, but before clock time they were not all of equal length: the twelve daytime hours were equally divided from sunrise to sunset, the twelve nighttime hours from sunset to dawn. In sequence, the hours belonged to Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in an endless circle, with each one in turn serving as regent or ruler for that day. This was the Ptolemaic order of the planets, according to their perceived speed and distance from the earth.
The planets also gave us the seven liberal arts, and, by number and type, the seven deadly sins: sloth (Saturn), pride ( Jupiter), anger (Mars), gluttony (the Sun), lust (Venus), avarice (Mercury), and envy (the Moon). Like the signs, the planets inspired worship and adulation, and each of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, according to one scholar, arose in homage to one of the planets then known. The Colossus of Rhodes was an altar to the Sun; the temple of Diana at Ephesus to the Moon; the Great Pyramid at Giza to Mercury; the hanging gardens of Semiramis to Venus; the mausoleum of Halicarnassus to Mars; the temple of Olympian Zeus to Jupiter; and the Pharos of Alexa...