Part I
Competition
Chapter 1
Market Consolidation and Pricing Developments
in Grocery Retailing: A Case Study*
Ratula Chakraborty
University of East Anglia
Paul W. Dobson
University of East Anglia
Jonathan S. Seaton
Loughborough University
Michael Waterson
University of Warwick
Abstract
When large retailers merge, there is a concern that a sudden and marked increase in concentration will alter the intensity and nature of price competition to the detriment of consumers. This chapter considers just such a situation in regard to UK grocery retailing, which has witnessed steadily increasing concentration over recent years, advanced by a series of mergers. Specifically, we examine the nature of price competition amongst the major âone-stop-shopâ retail chains before, during, and after the Safeway/Morrison merger in March 2004. We find the merger offered consumers an immediate windfall benefit â with average prices falling straight after the merger â and more intriguingly appears to have led to (or at least is associated with) a marked change in the character of price competition in the market.
Keywords: Price competition, concentration, pricing strategies, grocery retailing.
JEL Classification Codes: L40, L81, L11.
1. Introduction
Prices in the UK grocery sector fell in real terms by 7.3% in the early 2000s (Office of Fair Trading, 2006). Yet, over the same period, concentration increased sharply, with the top four UK supermarket retailers increasing their joint share from approximately 60% to 75%. Doubtless, costs might have been lowered through scale efficiencies, improved organization, and the exercise of buyer power. Even so, the falling prices may be symptomatic of changes taking place in regard to how retailers compete, and in particular, the pricing strategies that they employ, and not merely to do with passing on cost savings. To analyze this, we investigate pricing strategies with particular reference to a large merger.At issue is whether a change in market structure can fundamentally change market behavior in an unanticipated, but in this case apparently beneficial, manner with implications for evaluating future scenarios of how market outcomes might evolve post-merger.
This chapter explores this issue using a balanced panel sample from a novel dataset that covers prices for a wide range of grocery and household products across all four major supermarket chains jointly accounting for over 90% of the UK one-stop shopping grocery retail market (defined in the UK as grocery sales from stores greater than 1,400 sq. m). The dataset used is based on weekly-updated price data on individual items covering the period from November 2003 to November 2006, during which time, there was significant change in the structure of the market, the completion of the Safeway/Morrison (hereafter, S/M) merger in March 2004, consolidating the position of the fourth player. Otherwise, this time period is characterized by the macroeconomically benign environment of growth and mild inflation now called the Great Moderation. For the period investigated, we find a strong incidence of net price reductions. The evidence suggests that the primary driver of falling prices during this period has been higher priced firms cutting prices (rather than lower priced firms cutting prices further) as they shifted from traditional high-low (âHiLoâ) promotional-based pricing toward value-oriented every-day low pricing (âEDLPâ), whilst retaining promotional elements â a hybrid strategy that all four major players appear to have adopted to a greater or lesser extent by the end of the period studied.1
For this market, a move toward price convergence is associated with a change in the character of price competition triggered by increased concentration and an intensifying battle for market share.Yet, the real price reductions overall mask a more complex picture of price changes, with many falls at the same time as substantial increases in prices on other products.
Viewed in policy terms, this era may have an important bearing on how competition authorities should view retail mergers, with the need to distinguish those likely to promote a shift toward more intense, rather than less intense, competition to the benefit of consumers. The UK competition authorities were faced with four possible merger scenarios, out of which they chose one (with relatively minor restrictions regarding the small number of areas where the merging parties overlapped significantly). The short-term indications are that they got this right, in the sense that the other possible mergers would have led to a more asymmetric concentrated structure and an outside firm is likely to have found greater difficulty in delivering cost reductions.
There remains a lingering concern that as the post-merger market settles, and positions stabilize, then competitive intensity may wane, leading to the prospect of future price rises. Yet, at least for the period studied here, examined purely in terms of the impact on consumer welfare through effects on prices, our analysis provides support for the arguments made by the UK competition authorities in allowing the S/M merger (rather than the other contemplated mergers) in an already quite concentrated market. Our sample suggests that consumers saw an immediate windfall benefit from the merger â with price cuts across a wide range of products following completion of the merger; although, we establish close correlation in timing, this is clearly not the same as establishing causation.2
Beyond the rapid post-merger drop in prices, we also find evidence that the nature of price changes and competitor responses changed more generally over the period. In particular, leaderâfollower patterns and response timings appear to have shifted as the price gap narrowed across the main retailers. Indeed, there is evidence of asymmetric leaderâfollower positions, with one retailer tending to lead on price rises while another retailer tends to lead on price falls.We also find that, while an increasing number of products were identically priced across all the main retailers, even where price gaps remained, they were often as small as a single penny across the four retailers. A significant proportion of the price changes, particularly decreases, were a single penny, indicating a willingness to pass on lower costs and/or seeking to gain or maintain the lowest price position (and thus enhance their reputation with consumers) â and suggesting low menu costs.
The chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, we briefly review developments in the UK grocery sector, examining changes in market concentration and the nature of the leading players in the âone-stop shoppingâ market. In Section 3, we discuss the source and nature of the pricing data used. In Section 4, we assess the four main retailersâ price change decisions in terms of patterns over time (particularly in view of the S/M merger, examining average prices, direction and magnitude of price changes, and the extent of price alignment across the retailers), patterns across product types, and evidence of leaderâfollower behavior. Section 5 concludes the chapter.
2. UK Grocery Retailing and One-Stop Shopping
Grocery retailing is significantly the largest retail sector in the UK. Total sales through UK grocery outlets were around ÂŁ120 billion (approximately $200 billion) in 2005 (Office of Fair Trading, 2006). Of this total, around ÂŁ95 billio...