Sustainability Matters: Environmental And Climate Changes In The Asia-pacific

Environmental and Climate Changes in the Asia-Pacific

Lin-Heng Lye, Victor R Savage, Harn-Wei Kua, Loke-Ming Chou, Puay-Yok Tan

• Publisher: WSPC
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9789814719162
• Topic: Sciences biologiques
• Subtopic: Science générale

Sustainability Matters is a compilation of some of the best research papers by students from the National University of Singapore's multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary graduate programme in environmental studies, the M.Sc. in Environmental Management [MEM]. This collection is for the period 2012/2013 and 2013/2014. Entitled Sustainability Matters: Environmental and Climate Changes in the Asia-Pacific, this is the fifth compilation by the programme, and comprises 18 of the best research papers completed during this period. The papers have been edited for brevity. They analyse the many challenges to effective environmental management covering countries including Bangladesh, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and the US. Issues examined include biodiversity conservation, environmental impact assessments, energy, food security, sustainable business practices, public housing, environmental education, and climate change.

The first compilation, Sustainability Matters: Environmental Management in Asia was published in 2010 (World Scientific) and comprised the best papers from 2001/2002 to 2006/2007. The second, Sustainability Matters: Challenges and Opportunities in Environmental Management in Asia was published in 2011 (Pearson), and comprised the best papers from 2007/2008 and 2008/2009. The third and fourth compilations (World Scientific) comprised the best papers from the period 2009/2010 to 2011/2012.

The papers are edited by five staff members from different disciplines in the MEM programme: Lye Lin-Heng, Victor R Savage, Kua Harn-Wei, Chou Loke-Ming and Tan Puay-Yok.

Contents:

• Preface and Acknowledgements, Lye Lin-Heng, Chair, MEM
• Message from Goh Swee-Chen, Chairperson, Shell Companies in Singapore
• Message from Tommy Koh, Chairman, MEM Advisory Committee, NUS
• Message from Heng Chye-Kiang, Dean, School of Design and Environment, NUS
• About the Authors
• About the Supervisors and Editors
• Introduction: Environmental and Climate Changes in Asia: Lessons in history and game changers in economics, politics and scientific research (Victor R Savage, Lye Lin-Heng, Kua Harn-Wei, Chou Loke-Ming & Tan Puay-Yok)
• Biodiversity:
  • Understanding Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) Occurrences in Manila Bay, Philippines (Rosa Celia Poquita-Du & Peter Alan Todd)
  • CITES Legislative Implementation: Lessons from and for ASEAN Member States (Denise Cheong & Lye Lin-Heng)
• Environmental Management:
  • Assessment of Protection against Sea Level Rise: A Case Study of a Coastal Area in Singapore (Efstathios Giannoustas and Jesuthason Thampapillai)
  • Water Scarcity to Water Security: How Can Asian Cities Achieve a Sustainable Transition? (Maitreyee Mukherjee, Dennis Wichelns & Namrata Ravindra Chindarkar)
  • Plastic Bags in Singapore: A Critical Examination of Issues in Sustainability (Marra Lin Teasdale-Hensby & Lye Lin-Heng)
  • Environmental Impact Assessment Laws of Malaysia and Hong Kong: Lessons for Singapore (Nidhi Mehra & Lye Lin-Heng)
  • Singapore's Fresh Pork Supply: Food Security and Environmental Impacts (Lim Chien-Fang & Victor R Savage)
• Green Business:
  • Sustainable & Responsible: The New Face of Indian Businesses (Himadri Mahajan & Audrey Chia)
  • Effectiveness of Sustainable Business Practices: Case Studies of Ready-Made Garment Companies of Bangladesh (Tayef Quader & Audrey Chia)
  • Integrated Policy Design Through Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment: A Case Study of Cotton Garments (LCSA Of Cotton T-Shirt) (Thida Tun & Kua Harn-Wei)
  • Sustainability Issues and Strategies of Biofuel Development in Southeast Asia (Mallika d/o Naguran)
• Urban Studies:
  • Energy Efficiency in Affordable Housing: Can It Work for Independent Rental Owners (Julia Emerson & George Ofori)
  • The Potential and Benefits of an Incentive System to Promote Environmentally Friendly Behaviour in Residents of HDB Flats (Koh Kai-Jie & Grace K M Wong)
  • A Review of Environmental Education in Singapore — Towards a Change in Approach (Ang Guorong Albert & Audrey Chia)
  • Environmental Literacy among Secondary Three Students in a Singapore Secondary School (Loo Hui-Min & Harvey Neo)
• Climate Change:
  • Possible Market Mechanisms for the Post-Kyoto Regime (Ellen May Zanoria Reynes)
  • Past and Contemporary Proposals on Differentiation and Equity: Shaping the 2015 Climate Agreement (Melissa Low & Lim Lei-Theng)
  • Mitigating the Environmental Impact of Aircraft Emissions through an Economic Theory — The Endowment Effect (Zhang Qiang)

Readership: Graduate students, academics and researchers in environmental management/science.

Part 1

Biodiversity

1

UNDERSTANDING HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM (HAB)
OCCURRENCES IN MANILA BAY, PHILIPPINES

ROSA CELIA POQUITA-DU and PETER ALAN TODD

Harmful algal blooms (HAB) are a yearly event in the waters of Manila Bay, Philippines. The very first major bloom was caused by a toxic dinoflagellate species, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum, which is known to cause Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP). This chapter reviews HAB episodes in the bay recorded from the 1980s to 1990s, and compares them with the more recent events in the 21^st century. Pyrodinium blooms occurred for almost a decade from 1988 until 1998, before being succeeded by a non-toxic species, Noctiluca scintillans, that was first recorded in the year 2001. No PSP cases were recorded between then and the year 2010. More recent bloom episodes, however, were caused by another toxic dinoflagellate species, Alexandrium minutum. The numbers of recorded PSP cases were higher in the 1980s and 1990s bloom events compared to the more recent toxic blooms. The decrease in incidences of PSP do not necessarily mean that the ecological health of the bay has improved, but instead could be due to changes in the physico-chemical properties of the water favouring one phytoplankton species over another. Even though sea surface temperatures and rainfall are known to be associated to HABs, the present study found no significant correlations among the variables tested. Due to the complexity of the environmental issues identified in Manila Bay, it is essential to conduct more comprehensive studies on the biological, physical, and chemical components of the bay to facilitate a clearer understanding of HAB episodes.

1. Introduction

Almost every coastal country in the world is affected by Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), commonly known as red tides (Anderson, 2007), and they represent one of the major marine environmental problems in Southeast Asia (SEA). The phenomenon is caused by the proliferation of phytoplankton species which results from a combination of physical, chemical and biological factors including natural mechanisms of species dispersal, pollution-related nutrient enrichment of water bodies, climatic shifts, and transport of algal species via ship ballast water (Anderson, 1998 & 2007; Smayda, 1989; Hallegraeff, 1993). Coastal waters in the SEA region are increasingly contaminated by pollutants from various sources, sometimes reaching levels that cause the rejection of shellfish for human consumption and export (Chua et al., 1989). The Philippines is one of the countries greatly affected by HABs, with almost yearly recurrences at several coastal areas. Since 1999, the country has recorded the highest number of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) incidences caused by Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum blooms in the region (Azanza and Taylor, 2001). PSP results from the ingestion of a potent endotoxin called saxitoxin (STX), which is produced by some species of dinoflagellates. These toxins are accumulated in the tissues of bivalve organisms (e.g. mussel, oysters) and are harmful when consumed by humans. Saxitoxin is classified as a neurotoxin which is capable of causing paralysis to the victim within 24 hours after ingestion (Popkiss et al., 1979).

The Philippines has experienced a considerable number of red tide outbreaks in the coastal waters in all three major islands: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. This phenomenon has been continuously monitored over the last three decades starting from the 1980s to the present. Up to the year 2001, the country has experienced a total of 42 toxic algal blooms which resulted in a total of 2,107 PSP cases with 117 fatalities (Furio & Gonzales, 2004). Reported economic loss in the Philippines during the 1983 bloom (the very first HAB occurrence in the country) was approximately USD 5 million. The first bloom that occurred in Manila Bay in 1988 resulted in losses of USD 300,000 per day during the height of the episode (Corrales and Maclean, 1995; Azanza and Taylor, 2001).

HABs have brought tremendous negative impacts, not just to the marine ecosystem, but also to the economy and human health; therefore, understanding bloom dynamics can potentially improve existing mitigation measures and further minimize economic losses. This chapter (1) examines the recorded toxic and non-toxic algal blooms in Manila Bay from 1988 to 2011, and discusses the mechanisms of each causative species; (2) evaluates the roles of two environmental factors, i.e. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and rainfall, in initiating bloom episodes in the bay and; (3) recommends steps towards improving existing management strategies.

Manila Bay

Manila bay is a semi-closed body of water situated in the western part of Luzon between 14.23° and 14.87°N and 120.53° and 121.03°E (Figure 1.1). Its coastline extends to approximately 190 km coastline with a surface area of 1,700 km², estimated volume of 2.89 × 10¹⁰ m³ and an average depth of 17 m (Jacinto, et al., 1998; Velasquez, et al., 2002). The climate of the bay is characterized by two pronounced seasons: (1) dry from November to May, and (2) wet from June to September. Generally, August is the rainiest and February the driest. Three major wind regimes are observed in the bay: (1) Northeast monsoon from October to January, (2) south-easterly from February to May, and (3) south-westerly trade winds from June to September. The circulation pattern of the surface water is influenced by the interplay of the surface wind stress, tidal forces, and freshwater discharges (De las Alas and Sodusta, 1985). It receives drainage directly from almost 17,000 km² of watershed composed of 26 catchment areas. A total of 131 rivers and creeks drain into the Bay and high organic loading from these rivers led to the eutrophication of the waters (Bajarias and Relox, 1996). It is bounded by coastal cities and municipalities of Bulacan and Pampanga in the North, Cavite and National Capital region or NCR (including Manila, Pasay, Paranaque, Las Pinas and Navotas) in the East, Bataan in the West and Northwest. Also, within the watershed are the non-coastal cities and municipalities of the NCR (Quezon City, Caloocan, Makati, Pasig, Marikina, Mandaluyong, Muntinlupa, Valenzuela, Malabon, San Juan, Pateros and Taguig), provinces of Nueva Ecija and Tarlac in Region 3, and Rizal and Laguna in Region 4. There are several residential areas near the Bay region that stretch from the low lying coastal zone to upland areas. A large number of migrants have moved to the urban areas around Manila Bay, which has contributed to poverty. Many live in shanty houses in waterways (by the rivers and coastal zones), under bridges and abandoned railways (Ashby, 2008).

Fig. 1.1. Map of Manila Bay showing the neighboring provinces.

Manila Bay plays an important role to the economy of the country due to its numerous contributions (Jacinto et al., 2006). The bay supports several industries from shipping ports to major fishing grounds and numerous aquaculture farms (Prudente et al., 1994). Not only does it have high economic value, but it also had been declared as a critical habitat in Metro Manila as it supports numerous endemic wildlife species, migratory birds, as well as mudflats and mangrove resources (Su et al., 2009). The bay used to be one of the major sources of fishes, shellfishes and other aquaculture products for exports, but the volume of desirable species has diminished considerably over time. Massive economic and biological overfishing in the bay occurred as early as 1948 (Muñoz, 1991). It is considered to be eutrophic due to the accumulated large amounts of nutrients, mostly coming from domestic discharges, particularly near Pasig River watershed (Jacinto et al., 1998), and some from indiscriminate discharge of effluents from industries around the area (Jacinto, et al., 2006). Results from the study conducted by Chang et al. (2009) showed high concentrations of nitrogen species, particularly ammonium, in Pasig River which indicated the river to be the main source of nutrient input to the bay. It receives all outflow from Manila’s sewerage system and only about a quarter of the entire population of Manila (approximately 1.14 million) is served by the communal sewerage system (Gunnerson and Cuellar, 1988).

2. Methods

Most of the data were obtained from government reports prepared by Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) — Marine Biotoxins Monitoring Unit (MBMU) and the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAG-ASA) for the records of HAB occurrences in Manila Bay, and the Average Monthly Rainfall respectively. Other data sources included the International Research Institute (IRI) Climate Data Library¹ for the Average Monthly SST data and also published quantitative studies on HAB occurrences in Manila Bay.

Acquisition of Secondary Data

(i) Record of PSP cases in Manila Bay

Data of HABs in Manila Bay were obtained from BFAR Central Office in Quezon City, Philippines. The monitoring unit mainly focused on harmful algal blooms associated with shellfish poisoning. Acquired data include: (a) number of illnesses & deaths associated with PSP cases in Manila Bay from 1988 when it first occurred in the area until the recent date (mid 2012); (b) causative phytoplankton species for each bloom; (c) implicated shellfish and levels of PSP toxins; (d) specific locations where the bloom started and; (e) dates/duration of shellfish ban. The sampling protocol applied by MBMU in detecting PSP events employs measurements of two key parameters which include: (a) toxicity level in shellfish meat samples and; (b) presence of PSP causing organisms. Collection of samples is on a regular basis wherein the frequency of sampling depends on the site. Field sites which are representative of the whole area of concern and specifically chosen based on the logistic reports of red tide occurrence and availability of shellfish resources are already established. One of the primary sampling stations in the Philippines is Manila Bay, which covers Cavite, Navotas (Metro Manila), Bulacan, and Bataan. Sa...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Preface and Acknowledgements
• Message from Goh Swee-Chen, Chairperson, Shell Companies in Singapore
• Message from Tommy Koh, Chairman, MEM Advisory Committee, NUS
• Message from Heng Chye-Kiang, Dean, School of Design and Environment, NUS
• About the Authors
• About the Supervisors and Editors
• Contents
• Introduction: Environmental and Climate Changes in Asia: Lessons in history and game changers in economics, politics and scientific research
• Part 1: Biodiversity
• Part 2: Environmental Management
• Part 3: Green Business
• Part 4: Urban Studies
• Part 5: Climate Change