Leo Tolstoy

Daniel Moulin, Richard Bailey

• Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781472504845
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

How do we know what we should teach? And how should we go about teaching it? These deceptively simple questions about education perplexed Tolstoy. Before writing his famous novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, Tolstoy opened an experimental school on his estate to try and answer them. His experiences there incited his life-long inquiry into the meaning and purpose of religion, literature, art and life itself. In this text, Daniel Moulin tells the story of the course of Tolstoy's educational thought, and how it relates to Tolstoy's fiction and other writings. It begins with his experience of being a child and adolescent, incorporates his travels in Europe, the experimental school, his literature, and his views on art, philosophy, and spirituality. Throughout, the relevance and impact of Tolstoy's thinking on education are translated into applicable theory for today's education students.

Part 1

An Intellectual Biography of Leo Tolstoy

Chapter 1

Early Experiences and Influences

Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy was born on 28 August 1828 at Yasnaya Polyana in the Tula district of Russia. The leather sofa on which his mother labored, and on which Tolstoy’s own children were later born, still sits in the writer’s study next to his writing desk. The Levin of Anna Karenina keeps a comparable item of furniture, with a similar history, in his study. This is just one of the many autobiographical similarities, such as being orphaned, that Tolstoy shares with his fictional heroes. Countess Marya, Tolstoy’s mother, died when Tolstoy was only a year and a half old; Tolstoy’s father, Count Nikolai, seven years later. Tolstoy, his three older brothers, Nikolai, Sergei and Dmitri, and a younger sister, Marya were brought up by two aunts. No portrait of Tolstoy’s mother survived, and Tolstoy had no memories of her. In later life, he reflected that his conception of his mother was beautiful as she was ‘purely spiritual’ in his mind’s eye.

Tolstoy’s memories of early childhood, in contrast to the exploits of his debauched youth, tell us much about his idealized view of childhood, a time of innocence and spiritual understanding. He explains in his Recollections (1902–1908):

I will [only] tell of one spiritual condition which I experienced several times in my early childhood, and which I think was more important than very many feelings experienced later. It was important because it was my first experience of love, not love of some one person, but love of love, the love of God, a feeling I subsequently experienced only occasionally, but still did experience thanks it seems to me to the fact that its seed was sown in earliest childhood. (RE, 42)

This important experience occurred while Tolstoy played the ‘ant brothers.’ Tolstoy and the other children had heard of the ‘Moravian Brothers,’ a Protestant Christian movement, but the name had become innocently corrupted in their childish parlance, as it sounds similar in Russian, to ‘ant hill.’ In the house, the ant brothers would hide under chairs and tables, barricading themselves in with blankets, sitting still in the dark. While in this state, the children would enter another world of quietness, contemplation and companionship. They would sometimes talk about what and who they loved, and what would make them and others happy. Outside, in the forest, the ant brothers played another game with a similar theme. Nikolai, the eldest of Tolstoy’s brothers, would ask the other children to find the green stick, the inscription on which would explain how to make all men happy. In later life Tolstoy would often recall this story to his own children when he rode past the ravine in Zakaz wood, where the green stick was said to be buried, and where he would finally be laid to rest.

Along with the origin of his religious views in childhood, it would seem that Tolstoy’s pedagogical instinct also began at a young age. At the age of 5, Tolstoy attempted to teach his younger step-sister, Dunechka, the French alphabet. The lesson began well, but when Dunechka began to give the wrong answers, to Tolstoy’s frustration, she began to cry as did her young teacher.

Education in Tolstoy’s early literature

Tolstoy’s first published work, Childhood (CH, 1852), is indicative of the early educational interests of the young writer. Tolstoy’s aim in Childhood was to write an account, in first-person detail, of the experiences and development of Nicholas Irtenyev. Although Childhood was never intended as autobiography, many of Nicholas’ experiences are drawn from Tolstoy’s own childhood, as he clarified later in life. The book therefore gives some insight into Tolstoy’s own experiences of education, and the origins of his later thought.

Much of the book is given over to a vivid description of the emotional experience of learning. Little attention is paid to the subject content of lessons in favor of a thorough examination of the inner psychology of the young narrator. Tolstoy’s belief in the importance of a good, friendly relationship with pupils is exemplified in Nicholas’ warm relationship with his German tutor Karl Ivanych, a character based entirely on Tolstoy’s own much loved tutor, Fedor Ivanovich Kessel.

Karl Ivanych’s leaving is a key episode in Childhood. In it Tolstoy juxtaposes the banality of the formal lesson – learning dialogues off by heart – with the honest heartfelt emotion of a reluctant separation. As he thinks about his tutor’s leaving, Nicholas cannot concentrate: ‘For a long time I looked senselessly at the dialogues but could not read because of the tears that gathered in my eyes at the thought of the approaching parting’ (CH, 20).

For Nicholas the important lessons of life are learnt outside his formal lessons. His relationships with adults and other children, playing games and his experiences of nature are particularly valuable. During one game, reminiscent of the ant brothers, Nicholas makes an imaginary horse and carriage out of a shawl and chair with the other children, and reflects, ‘If one goes by reality there can be no games. And if there are no games – what will be left?’ (CH, 38). The importance of a child’s liberty and the playing of games, later endorsed in Tolstoy’s pedagogical articles is also emphasized by the form, as well as the content of the novel. The reader is presented with a stream of consciousness, freely exploring the candid observation and moral sentiment of the child, often in contrast to the strict disciplinarian attitudes of adult figures, such as Princess Kornakova, who extols the virtue of corporal punishment.

Childhood was followed by its sequels, Boyhood (BH, 1854) and Youth (YO, 1857). The trilogy was originally intended to be called the Four Stages of Development with a fourth part, never completed, dedicated to later adolescence. The two later books, like the first, share similarities with Tolstoy’s own life, and continue to contrast Nicholas’ personal development with the worthlessness of formal education. Both are therefore germane to understanding Tolstoy’s own experiences as an adolescent, and his views on education.

A key episode, which tells much about Tolstoy’s view of discipline and assessment, is described in Boyhood. Nicholas can hear the arrival of guests downstairs, but has to await the history teacher to complete a test. For Nicholas, the history lessons consist of pleasing the teacher, rather than learning anything of use to him. While waiting for the teacher to come, Nicholas looks at the page in an attempt to revise his homework. He realizes that he will not be able to learn any of it, especially because he is excited at the prospect of meeting the visitors who awaited him. In the ensuing history lesson, which he finds the ‘dullest and hardest’ subject, Nicholas receives the lowest mark possible, including a cause for concern over his effort. Tolstoy describes the humiliation of this event in lengthy detail as the harsh tutor records the grade in the ledger, with apparent disregard for the young boy’s feelings. Nicholas’ brother lies to St Jerome, Karl Ivanych’s strict replacement, about this grade, and the boys go free to play. However, the poor report is eventually found by St Jerome, who prompts a violent struggle by seizing Nicholas’ arm. Nicholas resists this physical intervention and as a punishment is locked in the furniture store room for a day and a night. While incarcerated, he hears St Jerome whistling overhead, which he considers is merely to goad him in what has become a battle of wills. Tolstoy describes the inner turmoil and psychology of this event which results in Nicholas being scolded by his grandmother.

After this incident, and the humiliation of the punishment that was given to him, Nicholas fails to have a good relationship with his tutor, and they give up on each other. Hatred defines Nicholas’ feelings for St Jerome, who although conscientious and well informed as a teacher, fails to build as good a relationship with his young students as Karl Ivanych did. It is not known whether the scuffle between Nicholas and St Jerome was autobiographical, but the character of the French tutor was based on Fyodor Ivanovich’s real-life replacement, St Thomas. According to Tolstoy’s daughter, Alexandra, Fyodor Ivanovich was loved by Tolstoy, and although he ‘did not hold any educational theory,’ he loved his pupils. In contrast, the affected Frenchman St Thomas had his ‘own theory of education and discipline’ (AT, 21). Such an appraisal, reflecting Tolstoy’s later criticism of the pomposity of theory-based pedagogical practice as opposed to a more humane, personalized approach, is preempted by Nicholas’ evaluation of the two teachers.

St Jerome was a proud self-satisfied man for whom I felt nothing but the involuntary respect with which all grown-up people inspired me. Karl Ivanych was a funny old usher whom I loved from my soul . . . St Jerome, on the other hand, was an educated and handsome young dandy, who tried to put himself on a level with everybody. (BH, 188)

Rather than his formal education, Nicholas’ experience of the natural world and his inner reflections provide the real drive of his learning and development. For example, a whole chapter of Boyhood is devoted to the passing of a storm. In this episode, joyfully described, the child freely experiences nature, despite getting himself dirty and wet:

the delicious scent of the wood after the spring storm, the odour of the birches, of the violets, the rotting leaves, the mushrooms, and the wild cherry, is so enthralling that I cannot stay in the brichka [a wooden cart] but jump down from its step, run to the bushes and, though I get sprinkled with the rain-drops that shower down on me, break off wet branches of the flowering wild cherry, stroke my face with them, and revel in their exquisite aroma. Heedless even of the fact that large lumps of mud stick to my boots and that my stockings have long been wet, I run splashing through the mud. (BH, 141)

As Boyhood progresses, however, Nicholas’ feelings become less innocent, even if they remain natural. Nicholas narrates his feelings about Masha, the servant whom he realizes he is attracted to. He also feels pangs of teenage self-doubt and loathing as he becomes self-conscious about his appearance. Nicholas’ problems concentrating, which began in childhood, become worse during adolescence. When thinking about Masha, he paces up and down, his imagination taking control of him.

Youth is preoccupied with Nicholas’ life at university and his desultory experiences of attempting to become an adult. It begins with the university entrance examinations. Tolstoy disagreed with formal methods of assessment throughout his career as an educator. In Youth he gives a negative portrayal of them, based on his own experiences at university. Tolstoy recounts Nicholas’ entrance exams in history, mathematics and Latin. The examinations consisted of queuing with other candidates and drawing questions at random, and then being orally examined by a professor on that question. In these three episodes, Tolstoy, through Nicholas, narrates the emotional experience of the student in what seems a process of favoritism, luck and guile as much as academic ability. He also exposes the perceived vindictive nature of some of the educators, in particular the Latin professor who was considered by students ‘a beast who delighted in ruining young men, especially paying students, and who was said to speak only in Latin or Greek’ (YO, 257). Nicholas’ experiences of his Latin exam confirm the professor’s reputation. He favors a student who lodges with him and then reduces the sensitive protagonist to tears, giving him the lowest pass mark.

During his time at University, Nicholas’ reflections highlight the pretence of adult life, from the perspective of the innocent bravado of an adolescent trying to grow up. For example, Nicholas attempts smoking. He buys his pipe and paraphernalia and retires to his room. Tolstoy explains the resulting experience in humorous detail as Nicholas’ face turns white and he lies on the sofa expecting to die. In a vignette with a similar theme, Tolstoy describes Nicholas’ first experience at a drinking party. Nicholas confusedly attempts to fit in, only to be ashamed and disappointed the next day, particularly when he finds his fellow drinkers bragging to other students. Tolstoy would later condemn drinking and smoking and also declare that universities, rather than promoting intellectual growth, merely allow the moral corruption of the young.

An important stage in Nicholas’ development at university is his self-diagnosed snobbish fascination with being comme il faut or doing things ‘properly.’ Here we can see the origins of Tolstoy’s later indictment of the idle and decadent lives of the upper classes, and the education provided for them. For Nicholas, being comme il faut involved projecting himself as someone with class and panache, to speak the best French, to know how to dance and make conversation. He subsequently divided all people into two classes, those who were comme il faut and those who were not. Nicholas later saw this phase as illusory, a hallmark of the false education of the superficial upper classes: ‘one of the most pernicious and fallacious ideas with which education and society inoculated me’ (YO, 338). He reflects that it is strange, given his incapacity for being comme il faut and that the obsession hindered his application to developing a profession, and developed contempt for ‘nine-tenths of the human race’ and ignoring the ‘beauty that existed outside of the circle of the comme il faut’ (YO, 341).

These developments run alongside Nicholas’ equally superficial experiences of formal teaching at the university. He describes his first lecture as jovial, but ultimately desultory. The experience of being among so many people of the same age is described more powerfully than the ensuing lecture. ‘As soon as I entered the auditorium I felt my personality disappearing’ explains Nicholas, but as the lecture begins he is disappointed by the professor’s opening comments and spends the rest of the time doodling in his notebook (YO, 362). Nicholas often feels sad: disappointed that real intimacy had not been forged between his educators and his classmates in this context. Tolstoy would later attempt to preserve the personalities of his students in his school, and always favored small classes for this purpose.

After spending winter in an unclear state of mind, getting caught up in imagined love affairs, socializing, focusing on being comme il faut, Nicholas suddenly realizes that he will be examined in eighteen subjects, which he has not studied at all. The book ends with Nicholas’ failure in these exams, in which he feels humiliated and disgraced. After spending three days morosely without leaving his room, Nicholas begins to write some new ‘Rules of Life,’ as Tolstoy himself did when faced with the same failure, as a ‘moment of repentance and moral expansion’ came over him and he firmly resolved never to ‘spend another moment idly’ (YO, 403).

Tolstoy’s early adulthood

The account given in Youth of Nicholas’ time at university bears some similarities with Tolstoy’s own, although the reality of Tolstoy’s life was actually far more salacious than the events of his fiction. Tolstoy moved to Kazan with his aunt and brothers, where all the Tolstoy boys would eventually enroll in Kazan University. Here, at the age of 14, Tolstoy was encouraged to visit prostitutes by his older brothers. During his teenage years and early adult life, Tolstoy regularly, even if with regret, continued to use prostitutes and serf girls. His first surviving diary entry of 17 March 1847 is written as he convalesces in a university clinic for sufferers of gonorrhea. The subsequent pages document his strong sexual urges on the one hand, and his desire for moral development and a life devoted to wholesome enterprise, on the other. According to one commentator, LeBlanc (2009), the battle between the sins of the flesh and the life of the spirit continues into Tolstoy’s old age, resurfacing in his attitude toward food and its treatment in his literature. Tolstoy certainly felt lifelong self-reproach for his early sexual misdemeanors. Tolstoy’s son, Ilya, tells how his father wept when he learnt of his son’s sexual innocence, apparently out of remorse for his own moral corruption years ago.

Tolstoy, after two attempts at the entrance exams, entered Kazan University in 1844 to study oriental languages. His absence from lectures soon became habitual and he found it difficult to fit in with his classmates. He failed his end of first year exams because of a family quarrel with a professor, and changed to study Law. In this subject he also achieved low marks, but he was noticed by one professor who encouraged him to study aspects of the theory of law. Tolstoy studied this in earnest, but true to the views later articulated in his writings on education, not so as to achieve success in the exams but out of his interest in the subject. This reinforced Tolstoy’s view that what really interested him academically could be more easily studied outside of university, rather than being constrained by a given curriculum. Tolstoy recollected later in life that studying the theory of law had ‘opened up for me a new sphere of independent mental work, but the university with its demands not only did not assist such work but hindered it’ (RE, 45).

Tolstoy’s disillusion with university, artistically rendered throughout Youth, remained with him all his life. In her biography of her father, Alexandra Tolstoy provides an anecdote of Tolstoy’s sophomo...

Table of contents

• Cover-Page
• Half-Title
• Series
• Title
• Dedication
• Contents
• Series Editor’s Preface
• Foreword
• Author’s Preface
• Introduction
• Part 1 An Intellectual Biography of Leo Tolstoy
• Part 2 A Critical Exposition of Tolstoy’s Educational Thought
• Part 3 The Legacy of an Overlooked Educator
• Epilogue
• Bibliography
• Index
• Copyright