Sexuality and Social Work

Julie Bywater, Rhiannon Jones

• Publisher: Learning Matters
• Year: 2007
• ISBN:
  9780857252395
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Work
• Index: Social Sciences

Sexuality remains a neglected and largely taboo area within practice, but it can be a demanding aspect of social work. Social workers may be familiar with the importance of issues such as racism and ethnicity, but sexuality is also a very significant part of people?s lives, closest relationships and sense of identity. This valuable resource introduces the topic, using a combination of perspectives to consider sexual diversity and examining related issues across the life course, including sexual orientation, disability, HIV, sexual abuse, mental health and sexual exploitation.

Chapter 1

Sexuality, terminology
and theoretical
perspectives of sexuality

ACHIEVING A SOCIAL WORK DEGREE

This chapter will help you to meet the following National Occupational Standards.

Key Role 1: Prepare for and work with individuals, families, carers, groups, and communities to assess their needs and circumstances.

• Prepare for social work contact and involvement.

Key Role 6: Demonstrate professional competence in social work practice.

• Research, analyse, evaluate and use current knowledge of best social work practice.

It will also introduce you to the following academic standards set out in the social work subject benchmark statement.

3.1.1 Social work service and service users.

• The social processes that lead to marginalisation, isolation and exclusion and their impact on the demand for social work services.

3.2.2 Problem solving skills.

• Analyse and take account of the impact of inequality and discrimination.

Terminology and meanings

Before reading any of the following chapters it is important that we share a common understanding of the terms and their meanings. One of the reasons why it is important to clarify and understand the meaning of terms is that words around issues of sex, sexuality and sexual orientation can often be perceived by others as offensive or oppressive or to mean different things to different people. The following activity will provide you with an opportunity to check out your initial thoughts and understandings.

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ACTIVITY 1.1

Use of language/terminology

What do you think are the meanings of the following terms?

Sex	Heterosexual	Homophobia
Sexuality	Bisexual	Heterosexism
Sexual orientation	Homosexual	Sexism
Gender	Gay
	Lesbian

Who and what do you think has influenced your understanding of these terms?

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Comment

You may have been very clear about the meaning of some of the terms and others you may have been more uncertain about. Our understanding of certain words is obviously influenced by many aspects of our lives such as family, friends, education, work, politics, media, culture and belief systems. It would be helpful for you at this stage to refer to the Glossary for the words and meanings that are going to be used throughout this book.

The remainder of the chapter will include a discussion around these terms and give us an opportunity to explore their interrelationship.

Sex, sexuality and sexual orientation – the meanings

It is useful at this stage to consider in more detail the terms sex, sexuality and sexual orientation.

Sex

In the English language ‘sex’ has several meanings. It can be used to categorise biological or anatomical differences between male and female, and it can also be used to describe a physical act between people, that of ‘having sex’. For the purpose of this book we have generally used the word ‘sex’ to mean the anatomical differences between male and female and have used the terms ‘sexual practice’, ‘sexual activity’ or ‘having a sexual relationship’ to refer to ‘having sex’. There are a few obvious exceptions when we have used the word ‘sex’ to mean sexual practice, for example in Chapter 6 when we discuss ‘safer sex’. How then do the terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ differ? One view is that sex is about the biological and anatomical differences whereas gender refers to the psychological, social and cultural differences between male and female (Giddens, 2006). It is useful at this point to reflect back to the nature versus nurture debate concerning human growth and development (Crawford and Walker, 2003) and consider to what extent the differences between men and women are determined by their sex (i.e. biological) or by their gender (i.e. psychological, social and cultural). Are aspects of masculinity and femininity constructed and influenced by biology or society’s structures? Current feminist theorists would dispute this division by stating that society influences all the differences between women and men and using the terms ‘sex’ for biological differences and ‘gender’ for social and cultural differences is unhelpful. Scott and Jackson (2006) argue that the term ‘gender’ should be used to cover all aspects of what it means to be a woman or a man in terms of biological, psychological, social and cultural differences and that the term ‘sex’ should be used for sexual and erotic activity. These are debates that we will return to in later chapters.

Sexuality

Sexuality is a difficult term to define as it depends on what theoretical perspective of sexuality you hold. An example is that if you believe that issues relating to sex, sexuality and sexual orientation are determined by biology and natural processes then your definition will be simple, concrete and immovable. Your definition will state that sexuality is that which is concerned with the reproduction of the species (Jackson, 1999, p.5). However, we would argue that sexuality is complex, fluid and involves many facets of human behaviour and being, which in turn is influenced by the historical, social, cultural and political context that we live in. Sexuality includes beliefs, acts, behaviours, desires, relationships and identities (Jackson, 1999; Weeks, 2003).

Sexuality explained

Bremner and Hillin (1994) argue that sexuality is made up of sex and sexual practices, sexual orientation, sensuality, social relationships and political dimensions. These aspects all add up to how we define ourselves as sexual beings. Sexuality involves our relationships with ourselves, those around us and the society in which we live, whether we identify as gay, heterosexual, lesbian, bisexual or celibate. Below are the different aspects of sexuality and what each aspect may include.

The lists above are not exhaustive and you may be able to think of other aspects that are missing. It is important to note that the sexual identities of the people within the political dimensions column are important in relation to anti-discriminatory social work practice. Some of their issues and struggles in relation to inequality, power and oppression within society will be explored in later chapters.

Sexual orientation

Sexual orientation is a term used to describe the direction of a person’s sexual attractions and desires. Common terms for describing people’s sexual orientation are heterosexual, bisexual, homosexual, lesbian or gay. These are terms that you have considered earlier when undertaking Activity 1.1. Sexual identity and sexual preference are also terms which are used to mean sexual orientation. All these different terms reflect the debate about whether sexual attraction and desire is fluid and incorporates an element of choice or whether it is an immovable entity which is fixed early in life.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Looking at Bremner and Hillin’s (1994) dimensions of sexuality, consider your own sexuality. What do you think has influenced the development of your sexuality? What messages did you receive about your sexuality and about sexuality generally in your childhood, young adulthood and later adulthood? Write down your thoughts so that you can refer back to them throughout the rest of the chapter when we are considering the aspects of the nature versus nurture debate.

Comment

You will have identified many influences regarding the development of your sexuality. You may find that the influences are similar to the ones you identified in the first activity in relation to your understanding of different concepts. How much of your sexuality has been influenced by nurture and how much by nature? You may find that one aspect particularly dominates as an influence. Has your sexuality changed significantly during the course of your life? If so, what were the influences for the changes? You may feel that your sexuality is fluid and changeable, or you may feel that it has been a constant in your identity.

RESEARCH SUMMARY

The nature versus nurture debate in relation to sexuality

Nature

The debate about whether there is a gene responsible for determining male homosexuality began in 1993 following a report in the journal Science by Dean Hamer, PhD in which he claimed to have identified a segment of the X chromosome (at marker Xq28) considered to be influential in determining sexual orientation. The report was based upon a study of 40 pairs of gay brothers and observed the same marker in 33 of the pairs. This led to claims that sexual orientation is hereditary and not a choice. However, in 1999 a team from the University of Western Ontario reported results of their study involving 52 pairs of gay brothers in the journal Science which disputed the presence of the Xq28 ‘gay gene’ or any other gene influencing sexual orientation. In the most recent research in 2005 undertaken by Brian Mustanski, PhD at the University of Illinois, Chicago, a wider study of genetic information was undertaken on all of the chromosomes, not just the X chromosome. This study of 456 men from 146 families with two or more gay brothers, found the same pattern among the gay men on three chromosomes which were shared by 60 per cent of the gay men in the study. This study strengthens the earlier claims that sexual orientation is innate (WebMD, 2005).

Nurture

Accepted types of sexual practices and orientation vary between different cultures, highlighting that most sexual responses are learned rather than occurring ‘naturally’. For example, in some societies/cultures it is believed that frequent sexual intercourse leads to physical illness and debilitation. Some cultures actively encourage or tolerate homosexuality, others are condemning and discouraging. There are also diverse cultural norms in relation to what is considered to be sexually attractive. For example, in most countries there is more focus upon the physical looks of women rather than of men, and traits of what is defined as beautiful in women differ greatly. In the UK and mass media globally today, for example, the traits most identified as beautiful and sexually attractive in women are those of a slim, ‘hour-glass’ shaped body, whilst other societies may identify more with the colour of eyes, shape of face, lips and nose. Ford and Beach (1951), Davenport (1965), Plummer (1975), Shephard (1987), Plummer (1995) and Trumbach (2003) are a sample of references spanning 50 years for further reading about the way sexuality is constructed by aspects other than nature.

Sexuality – diversity and power

As sexuality involves everyone, diversity and difference become its main appeal. For example, Lorber (1994) distinguished ten different sexual orientations/identities: heterosexual male/female; lesbian; gay man; bisexual male/female; transvestite female/male and transsexual female/male. In addition, there is a diversity of sexual practices and sexual tastes. For example, a man or woman can have a sexual relationship with a man or a woman or both, and sexual practices can take place on a one-to-one basis or with more people participating. We can perform sexual practices with ourselves (masturbation) or with no one (celibacy). People may also choose to have sexual relationships involving erotic materials and/or sexual devices. However, although these ranges of differences are recognised they are not all equal in terms of acceptability, perceived normality or power. Jackson and Scott (2006) for example, argue that what is regarded as sexuality and sex depends on the society in which it exists and whether it is regarded as acceptable or deviant is largely a matter of power relations.

At this point we would like to introduce you briefly to Michael Foucault’s ideas on power, which he claimed operated on all levels of social interaction, in all social institutions and by all people. The crucial aspect of power is t...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 Sexuality, terminology and theoretical perspectives of sexuality
• 2 (Hetero)sexuality and diversity
• 3 Sexuality, young people and social work
• 4 Sexuality, older people and social work
• 5 Sexuality, disabled people and social work
• 6 Sexuality, HIV and social work
• 7 Sexuality, sexual violence and social work
• 8 Sexuality, best practice and social work
• Conclusion
• References
• Glossary
• Index