An Introduction to Dramatherapy

Dorothy Langley

• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Year: 2006
• ISBN:
  9781446222904
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Psychotherapy
• Index: Psychology

`The book is well researched and provides a solid overview? - Therapy Today

`Dorothy Langley?s book offers a valuable overview of dramatherapy in all its applications. It provides evidence of many years? work as a teacher and practitioner. It is both clear and readable, and will serve as a useful introduction to this unique therapeutic approach for people in other healing professions, particularly psychiatry, as well as for the general reader? - Roger Grainger, Senior Practitioner on the Register of Psychologists Specialising in Psychotherapy, and State Registered Arts Therapist, Drama

An Introduction to Dramatherapy is a concise introduction to the background, theory and practice of a method of therapy which uses the dramatic process to help people during times of stress, emotional upheaval, illness or disability.

Illustrated throughout with vivid examples from dramatherapy sessions, the book shows how drama can be used in an intentional and directional way to achieve constructive change with individuals or groups. In particular, the book highlights the power of drama as a therapeutic medium because of its foundations in metaphor, power which can be harnessed through the use of techniques such as role play, enactment, story-telling and the use of puppets and masks.

An Introduction to Dramatherapy provides a welcome overview for readers who are new to the field and an excellent starting point for further study.

1

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WHAT IS DRAMATHERAPY?

Dramatherapy is a method of therapy which uses the dramatic process to help people during times of stress, emotional upheaval or disability. The techniques of dramatherapy are described in detail in Chapter 2 but, broadly speaking and according to their applicability, they are the techniques of drama and theatre in all their many forms. These include role play, enaction (either using scripts or by improvisation), the use of puppets and masks, storytelling, the use of rituals and games and much, much more.

In dramatherapy, the employment of drama and theatre as a medium for change during the course of illness, crisis or uncertainty, or to facilitate personal growth is intentional and is the essence of the approach. This intention differentiates it from other forms of dramatic activity. The therapeutic element is in the process of dramatic art, not the final enactment, so emphasis is on the experience and not the standard of performance (Langley and Langley, 1983: 14).

‘Intention’ is the important word; change does not happen by chance. Theatre and drama can be randomly therapeutic because they raise awareness to issues, attitudes and one’s own emotions. There is value in this in other fields, such as education and social learning, but dramatherapy is a deliberate application in order to alter attitudes, change behaviour and help with confronting and dealing with psychological disorders or emotional or behavioural enlightenment. It can be used to help people come to terms with permanent disability as well as ameliorate temporary illness and problems in times of crisis. Before considering who can benefit from dramatherapy it is necessary to have a clear definition of its purpose. The expectation for therapy or healing in its strictest sense is ‘to cure or comfort’. Expressed in broader and more realistic terms, it is now accepted that therapy is concerned with change. It can mean healing in the sense of relief or cure, a change of perspective or behaviour, adaptation to disability, coming to terms with reality, or simply personal growth. Dramatherapy has the potential to effect change in a wide spectrum of conditions and problems if applied and conducted appropriately. Dramatherapy is directed towards an individual or group of people and usually focuses on a particular issue. In order to do this, the dramatherapist needs to form a special relationship with the client based on mutual trust. It is the awareness of the intent by client and therapist that affirms the difference between dramatherapy and drama.

The important elements of dramatherapy then are that it is an intentional and directional use of drama with the expressed purpose of effecting constructive change. One of the advantages of dramatherapy is that there is no right or wrong way of doing it, apart from the confines of confidentiality and boundaries common to all psychotherapies. If the client interprets the instruction or medium in a way that is not intended, it does not matter unless the dramatherapy session is directed towards special learning, such as social skills. Their understanding may be more important to them personally than the dramatherapist’s original idea. The important issues, for the client and/or the group will become obvious and can be tackled, either at the time or in a later session. As with all psychotherapy, dramatherapy is only effective when there is a trusting relationship between the therapist and the individual client or group.

Not all clients come with an agenda of disorder or disturbance. Many people today seek a clearer understanding of themselves and their personal issues. Most of us feel the need to examine situations or feelings at some time. Drama is an excellent medium for exploration because of its metaphoric foundation. Clients can consider their lives, relationships and the issues around them by finding a metaphor, exploring it and then connecting their experience to reality. It also encourages a state of personal awareness which, although not necessarily healing in the strict sense of cure, is a means of working towards establishing peace of mind and/or improved functioning. In order to deal with their own issues, and also understand the dramatherapeutic process, all dramatherapists in training in the UK have to undergo their own personal therapy. Part of that therapy must be group dramatherapy, part must be individual therapy.

Although drama and dramatherapy are different things, it is only by understanding the origins and development of drama and theatre that dramatherapy itself comes into proper perspective.

The origins of drama

The development of dramatherapy is closely associated with the evolution of drama itself and an understanding of the latter is essential to comprehending the former. Related to drama is theatre and both terms are used in this book. For the sake of clarity throughout, the distinction is made between drama as being physical expression and enactment in general, and theatre as having a specific structure of performers separated from spectators, usually with a discrete performance area or stage.

Although the origins of drama are obscure, Hunningher (1955) has written widely about the subject in The Origins of Theatre, maintaining that there is no doubt it was originally a communal game and a form of adult play which developed into ritual comprising dances (Hunningher, 1955: 15). Harrison had previously asserted that in time these dances became dramatic or artistic representations (Harrison, 1913: 28). Such portrayals started as a re-enactment of tribal activities during the hunt or at war. Hunningher (1955: 18) takes the view that, prior to the development of language, these rituals were a means of reporting events. As communication evolved, the dances became rehearsals, culminating in a belief that the good-will of the appropriate god would be ensured by the dance, so introducing the elements of religion and magic (Harrison, 1913: 44). The dances were essentially group activities. Communal effort was essential to the life and well-being of the tribe and provided a vehicle for solving problems and answering prayers. The expression and relief of emotional tension are fundamental elements of ritual and also of art. Both originate from the desire to represent emotion by metaphor (Harrison, 1913: 26). In many ways, it is this representation of emotional issues through metaphor which underpins the practice of dramatherapy and which allows ‘therapeutic distance’.

It was the Greeks who coined the term drama – their word for action or ‘a thing done’ – and from drama, theatre evolved. Theatre is seen as evolving from the ritual of the ‘Year Dances’ at the end of winter and the coming of spring. These rituals developed into narrative dances of hunting and battle heroes. In these ritual dances, the performers no longer danced as themselves, but took on the role of another person, animal, spirit or other being. The gradual separation of ritual and theatre was initiated as myths began to evolve around these heroes (Hunningher, 1955: 28). When the participants became more sophisticated and no longer believed in ritual magic, some people ceased to participate. They became spectators at a performance. A space was made for these spectators who became more distanced, were inactive, yet still involved both cognitively and emotionally – theatre was born (Hunningher, 1955: 43). At this point, the proceedings became art not ritual – the art of theatre (Harrison, 1913: 126/7). Yet there still remains an element of ritual to this day, the very act of going to the theatre can be seen as ritual and the same involvement of the audience is still paramount.

The progression from ritual to theatre was probably slow and is epitomised by the evolution of Greek theatre which ultimately developed from the worship of the god Dionysus and the dithyramb, or hymn that was sung around his altar. This was a corporate event, with a chorus of 50 members who told or enacted the story (Hartnoll, 1985: 8). The number became varied over a period of time until, it is popularly believed, one actor, Thespis, stepped out from the chorus to enact an individual character, ending the long tradition and making way for solo actors to take the stage. The move was an important one in that group activity gave way to individual presentation, leading to the creation of Greek tragedy. This transition has been described as a ‘leap towards theatre’ rather than its gradual development as the progression itself was dramatic (Else, 1965: 3). The shift from choral storytelling to enacted plays created an accessible means of personal identification as people recognised their own issues and feelings represented on stage. This means of empathising with fictional characters ‘as if’ they were real allowed the audience to view their own problems from a distance, thus facilitating the development of the therapeutic aspects of drama.

The evolution of Greek theatre is often described as the main period of theatrical development and also the place where its therapeutic value was first acknowledged. Spring festivals were the time when Greek theatre came into its own. There were competitions to name the foremost poets/playwrights who tended to specialise in either comedy or tragedy. The events were attended by people from every walk of life, and became a platform for philosophy and politics. Aristotle wrote on both topics but is renowned in the world of drama for his definition of the elements of good tragedy in his treatise on Poetics, in which he emphasised a state of extreme emotional expression which he labelled catharsis. His use of a medical term which meant ridding the body of unwanted elements – in this case emotions – associated the art of medicine with the art of theatre. In so doing he created a structure for the development of drama as therapy. His premise was that identification with the characters portrayed on stage allowed the audience to express pent up feelings of joy, sorrow, anger and fear, resulting in a sense of ‘cleansing’ the emotions (Buckley, 1992: 11). Aristotle also commented on the theatrical mirroring of life events when he wrote ‘certain persons call their work dramas, because they imitate those who are engaged in doing something’ (Buckley, 1992: 5). Aristotle maintained that tragedy should give rise to pity for the plight of the hero and fear that such events could happen to oneself in reality (Butcher, 1923: 302).

The concept of catharsis as emotional relief has occupied a central role in the therapeutic use of drama but equally important is the notion that vicarious involvement, identification and the ambivalence of knowing that events on stage are not real, but are perceived to be real at the moment result in a temporary suspension of disbelief. This is an act in which both audience and actors willingly participate and collude to create effective theatre. The tenet of ‘as if’ is central to dramatherapy – allowing belief and disbelief to be present simultaneously.

The relevance of the evolution of drama to dramatherapy

The principles of dramatherapy, including play, movement, ritual, action, metaphor, distance, catharsis, group involvement, actor and audience, and exploration are all contained within the fabric of drama as it developed chronologically. An outline of their evolution is described below.

• Play – a basic element of dramatherapy. Slade describes play as ‘a form of expression that concerns the whole nature of man and woman’ (1995: 15). Whilst children’s play is accepted as part of their development, play is often seen as unbefitting to adult life. The ability to play spontaneously is frequently lost and play is usually structured into organised games and/or sports with rules and an element of competition. Any spontaneous play tends to be role play when one person either mimics another, or takes on roles in a light-hearted fashion. An emphasis on adult play is made by Blatner and Blatner (1988a: 33) when they maintain that play is a medium for learning in adulthood as well as childhood, increasing creative ability and providing a context for self-expression in which otherwise unacceptable behaviour can be tolerated. Children play with toys as if they were real, dolls and teddies are given personalities, cars are ‘driven’ as if they were real, imaginary liquids are ‘drunk’ from imaginary cups. Later children play at being other people and ‘become’ (for example) father going to work or the nurse giving an injection. This is called ‘imitative play’ and is a way of discovering roles, learning about others, coming to terms with unpleasant situations, such as having an injection, and reliving pleasant ones, such as a picnic. Imagination is crucial for creativity, self-awareness, problemsolving and understanding others, and is basic to drama. The element of play in dramatherapy allows a distancing from reality and makes the process enjoyable. It is perhaps relevant to point out here that, in some forms at least, playtherapy per se relates strongly to dramatherapy.
• Movement – early rituals were a method of communication in which body movement, dance and sound predominated. Dramatherapy is invaluable in the treatment and care of people who are either non-verbal, or who find oral expression difficult. Personal expression through movement and dance provide a medium for release of tension, telling a story, or communicating feelings without words. In this respect dramatherapy shares something with dance movement therapy (for an account of which see Meekums, 2002).
• Ritual – the theory that early rituals developed from adult play is credible because play is an integral element of drama. Ritual is an important element in dramatherapy. Repetition of sounds, movements and words are useful for creating boundaries and providing a secure working environment. Transitional rituals (rites of passage), for example those of birth, marriage and mourning, are an integral part of everyday life, and assist in the expression and control of emotions. In therapy, they can equally support individuals and groups in the process of meeting, parting and change.
• Action – drama is action, ‘a thing done’. Unlike the ‘talking therapies’, conflicts and problems can be approached through metaphorical representation. By enacting an unfamiliar role it is possible to experience new ways of being. Exploring a familiar role facilitates the discovery of a new perspective on life. Here (and elsewhere), the relationship of dramatherapy to psychodrama of which ‘action’ is a central element is apparent (see Wilkins, 1999).
• Metaphor – drama is essentially an art form which allows metaphorical expression of strong emotion. Although the therapeutic value lies in the dramatic process, it is important to acknowledge the artistic component inherent in drama. Spontaneity and creativity are essential ingredients, and there is a therapeutic satisfaction in knowing that the work is valued.
• Distance – theatre allows the spectators to distance themselves from the action. They know that events taking place on stage are an imitation of reality, but are involved cognitively and emotionally ‘as if’ they were real. Identification with a character whose situation, feelings and/or personality are akin to one’s own allows a detachment that reality does not. It is easier and safer to comment on the character first, before acknowledging any similarity with self. ‘Therapeutic distance’ is an essential element of dramatherapy.
• Catharsis – the word catharsis as well as being a medical term, was commonly associated with spiritual purification and in mythology with rebirth and metamorphosis (Nichols and Zax, 1977: 2). So there is an affiliation to the spiritual world of the psyche and the notion of transformation. The word catharsis, in the sense of emotional release, was used by Bruer and Freud in the early days of psychoanalysis and has been adopted by other psychotherapists to become a common feature in the description of the psychotherapeutic process although it has a variety of meanings (Nichols and Zax, 1977: 1). Just as theatre allows for the expression and release of feelings, so does dramatherapy.
• Group involvement – drama was originally an important part of community life. Similarly, dramatherapy is essentially a collective activity, in which group members co-operate and support each other in a shared activity. All the components of group therapy are present within the framework of a creative experience. These components include: interactions between different individuals with different experiences; self-disclosure and supportive feedback; development of trust through shared experiences; the acceptance and support of peers; and taking ‘risks’ in a safe setting.
• Actor and audience – as theatre evolved from a group action when Thespis stepped out from the chorus, so, as well as being a group approach to therapy, dramatherapy has been developed to encompass therapy on an individual basis, with the therapist acting as the audience or witness to the action. All the elements of drama are presen...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 What is Dramatherapy?
• 2 Theory into Practice
• 3 Preparing for Dramatherapy
• 4 Beginning a Dramatherapy Session
• 5 Applying Dramatherapy
• 6 The Heart of Dramatherapy
• 7 Dramatherapy and ‘Mental Illness’
• 8 Dramatherapy and Other Forms of Disorder of Mind
• 9 Other Client Groups and Dramatherapy
• 10 Conclusion
• Suggested further reading
• References
• Index