Understanding the Research Process

Paul Oliver

• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9781446246580
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Science Research & Methodology
• Index: Social Sciences

Understanding the Research Process helps students understand the use of specialist vocabulary and terminology of educational and social science research.

The author explores the ways in which research terminology is used, and shows students

- how to use specialist research terminology appropriately

- how to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate uses of research terminology

- how to understand the meaning of research terms

- how to disseminate research in a style which is clear and easily understood

The book is for final year undergraduates and masters students in humanities, education and social science subjects.

Paul Oliver is a widely-published author in the fields of education, philosophy and religious studies. He is currently principal lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Development, at the University of Huddersfield.

1

The Idea
of Research

Chapter objectives

This chapter will help you to:

• Understand the characteristics of the concept of research.
• Appreciate the diversity of categories into which we can divide research.
• Review the ways in which research is supported by organizations and sponsors.

Terms used

The following terms are discussed in this chapter: accumulation; action research; applied research; autobiographical research; basic research; case study research; commissioned research; correlational research; description; evaluation research; explanation; generalization; insider research; life history research; outsider research; policy-linked research; prediction; pure research; research; research tender; social research; sponsored research; theory; understanding; validation; verification.

The characteristics of research

As this book is about research, it seems appropriate that we should devote the first chapter to an analysis of the nature of research, and of the ways in which the term is used. ‘Research’ is not an exclusively academic word. We sometimes employ it in ordinary language, to refer to the collection of information. If we are planning a visit overseas, we might say that we are ‘going to research the cheapest flights’, for example. Used in this way, the word carries not only the implication of collecting information, but also of collecting that information in a particular way. It suggests for example, that we do not intend to make a quick, random search of all flights, but rather a detailed and systematic investigation of the options available to us. The term ‘research’ can also be applied in everyday language, to a wide range of contexts and subjects. It is not limited to one or two areas. Thus, in an everyday sense, research is about collecting information in a systematic manner, on a range of topics.

Fortunately perhaps, this term is used in exactly the same sense in academic or scientific enquiry, although it does have one or two additional connotations. In its most basic sense, research involves collecting information on something, and thus adding to our overall knowledge. Such additional information usually concerns an area which is less well understood or documented, and there are many such areas within social science and education. I have a number of friends who all work in different jobs, but I have little detailed knowledge of their working lives. Equally, they probably do not know very much about how I spend my working day. Systematic research could provide descriptions of the working lives of different professions, and so add to our knowledge of the workplace.

However, research goes beyond providing information in order to produce an accurate description of a place or social situation. It takes the key features of that description, and tries to understand why these exist. For example, many people would say that stress is a common feature of the workplace today. However, the causes of that stress may be diverse and complex, and may very well be interlinked themselves with many other factors. A researcher would try to take the initial description of the workplace, and then attempt to understand the mechanisms by which stress is produced in some members of the workforce. In other words, the researcher would try to produce an explanation. Such explanations may not be perfect, and they may not fit all comparable situations, but they can help us to understand something of the way in which situations arise in society. In a recent study, Tonnelat (2008) investigated the lives of homeless people in a small community on the outskirts of Paris. On one level he produced a description of their lives, and the makeshift accommodation which they had created for themselves. However, he went further than that, in trying to analyse their relationships with the permanent residents of the area, the police, and the city housing department. He interviewed the people themselves, and got to know them as individuals. In so doing he started to develop an understanding of their lives, and an explanation of the factors which affected them. In other words, he began to create a theory related to the lives of homeless people living on the margins of a large conurbation.

One of the advantages of research such as this, is that not only does it help us to understand a situation which is happening now, but it also gives us an idea of how a similar situation might develop in the future. So, for example, if unemployment and homelessness increased in the future, and people were forced to live in such circumstances, we would understand something of the circumstances which affected their lives. Research, therefore, enables us not only to understand something of present events, but also to predict future events. Moreover, even though this study applied only to one specific community in one large city, it may well be that some aspects of the conclusions would also apply to homeless people living in London or San Francisco. Research as a result provides us with an opportunity to generalize our findings and understand other similar situations.

Another feature of research is that it seldom takes place in isolation. One research study can build upon the insights of other research studies. Researchers exist in a community, and share their findings with each other, in order that we can gradually learn more about the world. Research is thus incremental and accumulative. More than that, however, researchers do not simply take for granted the conclusions drawn by other researchers. They subject their findings to scrutiny; they examine the rigour of the research methods which they have used; and they analyse carefully the logic by which they have drawn their conclusions. In other words, they will validate or verify previous research studies or theories.

Categorizing research

Much research is concerned with trying to develop a better understanding of the functioning of the world or of human beings. In such cases the research is less concerned with particular contexts or situations, and more with trying to understand the basic principles which are operating and which will apply in many different situations. This kind of research is often termed pure or basic research. It usually takes place within a specific subject discipline, and uses a clearly-defined range of concepts. Sometimes pure research is concerned with testing or validating previously-established theories, while on other occasions it will try itself to develop new theories. Within the sphere of education studies for example, pure research usually takes place within one of the disciplines which contributes to educational thought. For instance, pure research might be concerned with adding to our understanding of the cognitive processes which affect memory. Such research within psychology could be useful in many areas of life, but would have a clear application to education and to teaching strategies. If we can understand better the way in which children will memorize facts and principles, then this might affect the manner in which we present curricular materials in the classroom. Pure research therefore will often have implications for professional practice in activities connected with the social sciences, and can also affect the way in which policies are developed both locally and nationally.

On the other hand, some research sets out from the first instance to address a specific issue or problem rather than to add to our knowledge in a general way. Research which is related to a practical situation, perhaps to try to resolve a practical issue, is termed applied research. A great deal of educational research is actually applied research, since there is often a great need to resolve pragmatic issues in the process of teaching. Educational managers will want to know how best to innovate in curriculum delivery, and how to provide interesting and informative types of professional development for their staff. Teachers will want to know how to handle difficult and challenging classes, and how to enhance their career potential. Educational policy makers will want to know how best to adapt the curriculum in order to make students more employable. The list could go on and on. Recently Boyd (2008) and a team of colleagues from five different universities in the United States explored the range of teacher training programmes available in New York City. Perhaps interestingly, given the diversity and size of the city, they found a considerable degree of uniformity in the programmes available. They then went on to analyse the ways in which more specialist approaches could be introduced in order to meet specific needs. This is an example of applied research.

Moreover, there is sometimes a clear interaction between pure and applied research. The latter can on occasion shed light on a more fundamental research issue which is widely generalizable, while pure research can suggest ways of addressing practical problems. The distinction between these two broad areas of research, while not always clear-cut, can provide a useful way of thinking about the activity and purposes of research.

A very broad term which is used a great deal in the human sciences is social research. This wide-ranging term is used to include all areas of research which are focused upon the human condition, and the ways in which human beings behave and interact with each other. As we shall see in some examples, this could involve investigating the lives of African villagers or the way undergraduates respond to a new approach to medical training. Social research can encompass a wide variety of different subject areas and contexts. For example, it might involve researching the way human beings interact in industrial organizations, in religious communities, in schools or colleges, or in leisure situations or prisons. There is really no situation in which human beings interact which cannot be subjected to social research. Moreover, social research ranges across a number of different academic disciplines besides sociology, which is in a sense its ‘parent’ discipline. Methods of social research are employed in psychology, social psychology, religious studies, management studies, education and health studies, to name but a few. As social research embraces the disciplines of both sociology and psychology, it interests itself not only in the way people behave in groups, but also in the way in which individuals will think in social situations. For example, a social research study could investigate the way groups of people interact in a religious community, but also the social influences upon individuals in such a situation, and the way these influences affect their individual cognitive processes.

Another interesting feature of social research is that the key methods employed will tend to be the same whether these are used in, say, a school or a large industrial company. While a certain amount of information can be gleaned by observing human behaviour, in order to gain detailed insights into the reasons why people behave in the ways they do, we will usually need either to ask them questions or discuss issues with them. Hence different types of questionnaire or of interview procedure tend to be the most widely-used approach. These methods exist in a number of different variants, depending upon the circumstances, but all involve the researcher trying to peer into the human psyche, and to understand something of the background to human behaviour.

An important feature of social research, and one which to a degree distinguishes it from research in the physical sciences such as physics and chemistry, is that social researchers will spend a good deal of their time reflecting upon the methods that they use. Social research methods are not taken as a ‘given’ within social research. Researchers are very conscious that their mere presence in a situation can affect the behaviour of their respondents. When a researcher enters a school classroom to observe a lesson, or to talk to some of the students, then the dynamics of the classroom are almost inevitably altered. The students and teacher are conscious that a stranger has entered their social milieu, and that they are being ‘watched’. Besides the very fact that a new person has entered the social setting, other variables can affect the social responses. Whether questions are asked in an individual setting, or in a group situation; and whether interviews are conducted in a familiar or strange situation, may have a considerable influence on the research respondents.

Questions to ask

One of the difficulties for the newcomer to research is the wide range of terminology, and the fact that terms will often seem to overlap. Different writers may use different terms to refer to the same broad idea. For example, ‘social research’, ‘sociological research’, and ‘social science research’ may be used almost synonymously. Why is this? The answer probably lies in the diversity of subject disciplines which are employed in social research.

Within the broad area of applied research, there are a number of different strategies employed. In recent years, one approach which is becoming more widespread is that of action research. Whereas traditional research usually gives pre-eminence to the role of the researcher in planning and designing the research process, action research places much more emphasis upon those who are providing the data to become involved in the research process. Action research concentrates on the exploration and resolution of practical problems and issues, either in the workplace or within community settings. It tends to involve the researcher working in partnership with those who would like to see a resolution of the problem in question. Action research is at the same time a more democratic activity, and also significantly more empowering for those who are experiencing the issue or problem.

Action research typically involves a cyclical process of research followed by action in relation to the problem being investigated, followed by more research. The cycle will start with an evaluation of the problem, involving the joint efforts of the researcher and the participants. Typical issues addressed by an action research approach could be a problem with some aspect of production in a factory, difficulties with an aspect of curriculum delivery in a school, or issues concerning the availability of resources within a community. The evaluation is followed by the design of initial data collection, and the subsequent analysis of those data. The researcher and participants will then reflect upon the analysis, and take appropriate action to improve the situation being researched. There is then a phase of reflection upon the outcomes of that action. Next a plan is drawn up for further data collection which, after subsequent analysis, results in further action and later reflection. This logical process may be repeated in principle any number of times, although there are clear practical limitations to extending it too far. At some point there would have to be a joint decision that a reasonable degree of progress had been made in the resolution of an issue. This combination of research with practical action has generated many research studies in recent years.

Nemeroff (2008) used a variant of action research called ‘sustained dialogue’ in encouraging a group of village leaders in South Africa to plan development strategies for their community. Instead of seeing rural development as a series of goals, the strategy encouraged them to think of development as a process, in which continually discussing, acting and reflecting were arguably more important than a concern with targets at some point in the future.

The interaction between a researcher and a respondent can be particularly significant in situations where data are collected on a one-to-one basis, as is often the case in life history research. At first sight, life history studies appear to contravene some of the key principles of social research. They involve, for example, the collection of data from a single individual, or at the very least, a small sample of individuals. This apparently makes it very difficult to formu...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• About the author
• Introduction
• 1 The Idea of Research
• 2 The Conceptual Range of a Research Study
• 3 Introducing Research Questions and Aims
• 4 Analysing Previous Research
• 5 The Scientific Method
• 6 The Research Design
• 7 Data Collection Methods
• 8 Questions of Ethics
• 9 Presenting a Conclusion and Disseminating Research
• References
• Index